Resolution of disputes by subcontractors through arbitration in FIDIC Dissertation

Resolution of disputes by subcontractors through arbitration in FIDIC construction - Dissertation Example If there is any delay beyond the deadline, it may cause financial losses to the employer and hence, he may claim damages from the contractor for the losses suffered due to late completion of the construction project. To avoid this , most of the construction contract forms will include a provision for the parties to the contract to agree upon on monthly or weekly or on a daily basis for delay due to the contactor which is known as liquidated and ascertained damages .(LAD). The main objective of LADs is to notify the employer’s prerogative to claim damages for the infringement of a condition by a contractor to finish the work within the deadline1. Unprecedented scenarios are unavoidable element of every construction contract. ... ld† (â€Å"D & B†) or an EPC (Engineering, Procurement and Construction) contract, which is a contractual arrangement thereby imposing the entire accountability for construction and design of the work on a contractor. The phrase â€Å"turnkey â€Å"refers that after the finishing up the work, the contractor is only hand over the key to the owner or the employer to start the operations of the constructed project2. Delays in construction contracts can be classified as excusable or non-excusable. Excusable delay means a delay which may justify an prolongation of performance of contract’s time and some examples of excusable delays are unpredictable weather, changes initiated by the employer, issues with the project designs, acts of god, delays in receiving equipments, which is supplied by the owner, varying or differing work-site conditions, delay due to awarding of contract and labour disputes. If the main contractor is eligible to claim time extension due to unpre dictable weather conditions, subcontractor may be also eligible to claim time extension if the subcontract contains a â€Å"flow down† clause thereby obligating the conditions in the main contract which is automatically applicable to the subcontract also and as it includes an analogues excusable delay provisions3. Under the non-excusable delay, the contractor bears the risk of outcome and cost, not only for himself but also for the resulting effect on the others like subcontractors also. Due to mismanagement, a main contractor may encounter delays, which will also the delay the work done by the subcontractor. In such cases, the main contractor may be accountable to the subcontractors but not to the employer. The notion of non-excusable delay is employed chiefly as a shield to turn down the request for claims for

Hydrogen bonding and drug designs Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Hydrogen bonding and drug designs - Term Paper Example Hydrogen bonding and drug designs The extent of solubility of a solute depends on its hydrophilic nature. A molecule is more soluble if it can form numerous hydrogen bonds with its water solvent.1 Hydrophobic interactions between hydrophobic regions of the binding site of a ligand and its lipophilic surfaces are important predictors of its interactions in a biological system, which may affect water solubility to such an extent that may even result in unfavorable pharmacokinetic properties.2 It is thus evident that the number of hydrogen bonds made by a drug is an important determinant of its solubility, and ultimately, its bioavailability and effectiveness in a living system. This paper reviews three studies on the hydrogen bonding properties of drugs in an attempt to investigate the utility of hydrogen bonding studies in drug solubility prediction and drug design. Methodology The aim of this paper is to investigate the effects of hydrogen bonding on the molecular properties of drugs dissolved in water. Additionally, other aspects of the role of hydrogen bonding in drug design will also be dealt with. For the purpose of this review, studies relevant to the aims of this paper were searched via Google Scholar. Three most relevant studies were chosen based on the correlation of their subject of study and the aims of this paper. Results The first study assessed the impact of hydrogen bonding on molecular properties, namely Infrared (IR) and Raman spectra, of three drug molecules (caffeine, aspirin, and ibuprofen) dissolved in water.... ssolved in water.3 The second study investigated various computational and experimental models for the prediction of aqueous drug solubility.4 The third study presented a theoretical calculation of the strength of hydrogen bonding of drug molecules. The findings of these studies are systematically reviewed here. As the first study3 investigated changes in spectra upon dissolution of drugs in water, a frequency calculation was done for three drug molecules (caffeine, aspirin, and ibuprofen) in both gas phase and aqueous solution. IR and Raman spectra of the molecules were analyzed to investigate the influence of both long and short-range interactions on spectral intensity and vibrational frequency. The investigated frequencies were divided into three regions, namely – high, middle and low frequencies. Four different calculations were carried out. The first two calculations began with gas phase geometry optimization followed by calculation of IR and Raman frequencies in the gas phase (GS) and in PCM (Polarized continuum model) using water as solvent. The last two calculations were also done in two stages – geometry optimization with the water molecules located where they are assumed to form hydrogen bonds, followed by calculation of IR and Raman frequencies with and without polarized dielectric continuum. The structures of the three drug molecules with hydrogen-bonded water are shown in figures 1, 2 & 3. Figure 1 — Structure of aspirin hydrogen bonded to water molecules Figure 2 — Structure of caffeine hydrogen bonded to water molecules Figure 3 — Structure of Ibuprofen hydrogen bonded to water molecules In case of caffeine, there was a very small IR absorbance in the high frequency region except for peaks of higher absorbance indicating presence of OH bonds in