Statistics Collecting Crime Statistics - 1206 Words

THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT ARLINGTON Collecting Crime Statistics Rebekah VanDijk CRCJ 2334.002 Professor Carpenter 20 October 2014 Collecting Crime Statistics Law enforcement agencies use three different sources to collect crime statistics. They use official statistics, victimizations surveys, and self-report surveys as their main sources of collecting data. The University of Texas at Arlington and the University of Texas at Austin both have pretty similar crime statistics. Official statistics include the UCR, Uniform Crime Report, and NIBRS, National Incident-Based Reporting System. UCR is a summary based reporting system that collects data on the eight index crimes, murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, theft, auto theft, and arson. The UCR is published annually by the FBI, but the data is collected by law enforcement agencies all around the United States. UCR looks at trends of crime and gives statistics of crime in certain areas. Three weaknesses of the UCR is it only reports the highest crime committed, so if someone commits burglary and murders someone in the process the UCR will only report the murder, it only reports crimes known to the police, and not all crimes are reported to enhance the view of cities and areas. Although the UCR has weaknesses, it also has its strengths. Three strengths of UCR are that it has multiple years of data available, almost all law enforcement agencies use this to report crimes, and helps la wShow MoreRelatedThe Role Of Statistics And Criminal Justice1378 Words   |  6 PagesRole of Statistics in Criminal Justice Nerisa Newton Grambling University Abstract In this paper, the main objective will be to outline the importance of statistics as a method to analyze data in the field of Criminal Justice. Also, this paper will focus on ways in which data is obtained keeping in mind the appropriate statistics to use with the collected data, and how to interpret the findings. In addition, it will review the causes of crimes, the rate at which these crimes occur, predictiveRead MoreThe Uniform Crime Report Is Perceived By The International Association Of Chiefs Of Police770 Words   |  4 PagesUniform Crime Report also knowns as the UCR, is a program that was perceived by the International Association of Chiefs of Police in 1929. This program was essentially created to provide consistent, uniform crime statistics. Around 1930, Congress sanctioned the U.S. attorney general to assess crime in the United States (NACJD, 2010). Thus allowing the UCR program to get underway, tasking the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI), with the jobs of gatheri ng, circulating, and archiving all crime statisticsRead MoreAdvantages And Disadvantages Of Official Statistics In Sociological Research1105 Words   |  5 PagesDisadvantages of Official Statistics Official statistics are quantitative data produced by local and national government bodies, and can cover a wide range of behaviour including births, deaths, marriages and divorce, income, crime, and work and leisure. Official statistics can be produced as a by-product of the normal workings of a government department, but they can also result from research designed specifically to produce them. Two main sources of official statistics are the government and itsRead MoreInvestigation Of The Criminal Justice Field1261 Words   |  6 Pagesdata and statistics on criminal activity across the nation. By collecting this data we can better know when and where crimes are happening and try to provide a solution to stopping them. However, people bring into question the accuracy and usefulness of crime statistics as they merely reflect the views of the policy makers. Two sources that collect and publish crime data and statistics are the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program, and the National Crime Victim Survey (NCVS). The Uniform Crime ReportingRead MoreThe Importance Of Statistics In Policy Support739 Words   |  3 PagesStatistics in Policy Support Statistical data is very important to the field of Criminal Justice because before the accounting of police data, police work was largely reactionary instead of today’s prevention driven policies. Information gleaned from crime data not only gives a picture of how crime is increasing or reducing in specific areas; it helps law enforcement prepare plans of action to combat crime in specific areas. Sources such as the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), whichRead MoreOutline and Assess the Usefulness of Official Statistics of Crime to Sociologists.965 Words   |  4 Pagesof official statistics of crime to sociologists. There are three main sources of information about the crimes for sociologists – the official crime statistics, which are collected by the police and are presented as secondary data for sociologists; victim survey such as British Crime Survey, which is also collected by the police and sponsored by the government, and in order to collect primary data sociologists use self-report studies and its aim is to uncover the true amount of crime in the societyRead MoreMeasuring Crime Essay914 Words   |  4 Pages Measuring Crime Crime measurement and statistics for police departments are very important when it comes to money allotment, staffing needs or termination and it is also used to determine the effectiveness of new laws and programs. There are three tools used to measure major crime in the United States: Uniform Crime Reports, National Crime Victimization Survey and the National Incident Based Reporting System- which is currently being tested to replace the Uniform Crime Reports. AlthoughRead MoreMethods Of Measure Crimes And Collect Data964 Words   |  4 PagesIn this assignment I am going to outline the methods used to measure crimes and collect data. For instances, victim survey (also known as British crime survey) and police records are two methods used to collect data from those affect by crime in England and Wales by the Home Office Crime Statistics. Both provide different trends of crime and discuss the level repeated victamisations and reporting incidents as well as crime committed against the public such as particularly for offences involving physicalRead MoreThe Uniform Crime Reports The National Incident Based Reporting System978 Words   |  4 PagesThe Uniform Crime Reports verses The National Incident Based Reporting System The purpose of this abstract is to critically review the primary data sources used in the criminological research. The two key factors that measures crime are distinguished: official crime statistics, which are based on the compile data records of offenders and offenses processed by the police, courts, and corrections agencies; and unofficial crime statistics, which are produced by people and agencies outside the criminalRead MoreEvaluate the usefulness of quantitative methods in sociological research990 Words   |  4 Pageshypotheses of what the researcher expects to find, developing instruments and methods for measuring the data, experimental control and manipulation of variables, collecting the data, modeling and analyzing the data. and then evaluating the results. Quantitative methods can be questionnaires or interviews with closed-ended questions, statistics, the use of secondary data and experiments (with a control group and an experimental group). Questionnaires constitute a quantitative approach that is associated

Representation Of Women And Femininity - 1557 Words

The media, in all forms, plays a significant role in constructing and promoting the normative notions of femininity and masculinity. Gentlemen’s Quarterly, or GQ, is a men’s magazine which, focuses primarily on male’s fashion and culture through advertisements and articles of varying topics. Despite being a men‘s magazine, there is a fair amount of women and femininity displayed throughout the magazine. This paper will be focusing on and analyzing only the visual representation of women and femininity within the men’s magazine. There are three main modes in which women and femininity are shown in the visuals of the magazine. First, Femininity, in this September 2014 edition of GQ, is often displayed through the application of males exhibiting feminine qualities. Second, notions of women and femininity are shown through the interactions between males and females throughout the magazine, being almost exclusively showing women as accessories for the men . Finally, the subjects of interest are shown through females in ads with solely female models. The magazine enforces many of the social norms dictating what femininity should be and how females should act. Additionally, despite the magazine mostly using female models in a degrading way, it proceeds to, on many occasions, seemingly mask masculinity behind feminine characteristics. Throughout the magazine, femininity can be observed through males expressing feminine qualities. Within the first few pages, this idea is clearlyShow MoreRelatedRepresentation of Women and Femininity in She and Arabian Nights1365 Words   |  6 Pagesmarried to Shahrazad. Her generous nature to save other women in the kingdom that motivates her to the marriage. The dominant themes in the two novels are heroism, courage and ever-present sense of danger. Ayesha and Shahrazad are two different women in different situations. Both of these characters have shown the themes of female authority and feminine beha viour but in their own ways. Feminism can be explained in a very simple way that women are equals to men which means that they are as intelligentRead MoreSocial Construction And Its Impact On Society Essay1323 Words   |  6 PagesDepictions of Femininity Across Multiple Races Femininity is the ideal or qualities that pertain to females or womanhood. The ideal of femininity is one that reaches globally due to the international understanding of womanhood. The idea of femininity does not indicate that women are limited to specific women and gender roles. Instead, it is an understanding and connection of women that stretches across borders. However, it is essential to make note that the experiences and depictions of all women are notRead MoreAnalysis Of Jamieson s The Double Bind And A Bitch 833 Words   |  4 PagesJamieson (1995) Beyond the Double Bind, Double Bind Number Four: Femininity/Competence The sixth chapter in Jamieson’s (1995) book Beyond the Double Bind works strictly with the bind of femininity and competence. This is the bind where women have to balance a fine line between feminine and masculine without tipping the scale. If a candidate shows too much femininity, she risks losing brains, and authority. On the other hand, if a candidate is not feminine enough, she becomes too masculine, strongRead MoreGrowing Up Where, No One Looked Like Me, : Gender, Race, Hip Hop And Identity Essay1729 Words   |  7 PagesIn the article, Growing Up Where â€Å"No One Looked Like Me†: Gender, Race, Hip Hop and Identity in Vancouver Canada, author Gillian Creese examines the dimensions of gender and racialization, this study exemplifies how African-Canadian men and women are constantly faced and conflicted with identity issues. The study conducted interviews with second generation African-Canadians, ages nineteen to thirties. Participants were asked to recall mome nts from their childhood, in particularly their adolescenceRead MoreThe Self Representation Of Young Women899 Words   |  4 PagesThe self-representation of young women today, however, is limited by social and political forces. The bodies of young Australian women are still governed by laws and regulations around female bodily autonomy, including the criminalisation of sex work and the difficulty in accessing abortions. Females are continually blamed for their own sexual assault and rape, and young women are still sent home from school over their dress code. In a study sponsored by VicHealth, it is revealed that up to â€Å"1 inRead MoreGender Bending : Femininity And Masculinity928 Words   |  4 PagesBending Womanhood is often associated with femininity while manhood with masculinity. Masculinity is the idea that men are tough both physically and mentally. Femininity, a term associated with being a women and used to describe a women’s comportment and attitude. A gentle individual, male or female, who wear dresses, skirts, high heels, makeup, have long hair is considered feminine. Unfortunately this term is used to define womanhood, if a women does not portray feminine characteristics sheRead MoreAn Analysis Of George Cuviers Hottentot 1150 Words   |  5 PagesAmerican colonizers and promised a better life. Instead, she was displayed in U.S freak shows simply because her capturers and audience were curiously fascinated with her large buttocks and labia, in which she was presented as a freak of nature. Men and women from all over the country traveled to gaze upon her nude and exploited physicality, where she was denied of her language, which also contributed to the deni al of her humanity. Her master, George Cuvier attempted to use science to justify the imposedRead MoreSummary Of Homosexuality In Kushners Angels In America729 Words   |  3 PagesFemininity is something that can often be overlooked by the authors of any literary piece. During the time of â€Å"Angels in America†, Homosexuality was not something that was as widely noticed, or even respected, during the 1990s, in which the play was written. The play, taking place in Manhattan, New York, being a fairly loud city, homosexuality would generally be something that is not widely accepted. Kushner represented the ups and downs of homosexuality and a character with aids, becoming realisticRead MoreVisual images Reinforce Traditional Gender and Sexuality Stereotypes948 Words   |  4 Pagesinteractions with others† . These stereotypical representations of men and women depicted in advertisements invoke gender identities and reinforce societal values and attitudes towards gende r roles. Renowned Canadian sociologist Erving Goffman stated that the stereotypical portrayal of gender â€Å"insinuates its way into our collective cultural consciousness, even our individual psyches, normalising certain traits associated with masculinity and femininity, men and women, and impacting upon how we frame and defineRead MoreCosmetics: Depicting False Femininity in Vogue Essay893 Words   |  4 PagesIn today’s contemporary society, magazines, such as Vogue, depict women utilizing cosmetics to enhance their natural features in order to achieve the central goal of attractiveness. This idea of a consumerist society causes women to become objects of desire and victims of suppression, impacting their individual identities. The concept of consumerism allows Vogue to profit materially, targeting certain aspects of culture through three methodological tools of research, such as ethnography, textual

Leadership in the Work Environment Free Essays

The ability to be a successful supervisor does not center on being an expert in the tasks of the company. If one is a supervisor in a bottling company, success will not derive from the number of bottles that are capped, but by orchestrating personnel to be effective in the product line that caps the bottles. As such, the supervisor must pay a firm – yet benevolent – role with employees in order to make the employees as productive as possible within the grand scheme of company goals. We will write a custom essay sample on Leadership in the Work Environment or any similar topic only for you Order Now When it comes to the personnel who comprise the totality of the workforce, there can be issues that exist that are somewhat hostile. Whether employees are unhappy with co-workers or there is an anger directed towards management, such hostility must be addressed by an effective supervisory leader so as to return to a level of harmony and productivity. So how would I apply my skills to be an effective leader? By using my skills at understanding diversity; and effectively communicating in order to facilitate my leadership role. No work environment will be completely harmonious and it is the supervisor’s responsibility to effectively restore a sense of harmony to the work environment. This will require a great leadership role on the part of the supervisor, but far too often people will assume leadership means being firm or, worse, dictatorial. Such actions may work on a short term basis, but ultimately, such a heavy handed approach will lead to failure. In order to be an effective leader, one needs to temper firmness with a compassion and sensitivity that will greatly allow for stronger bonding between management and employee. This bonding will eventually provide the impetus for  subordinates to follow the guidelines of those in leadership roles and managerial positions. On a baseline level, there needs to be an understanding as to the complexity that can exist within the workforce. Often, that complexity derives from the great diversity of the people who comprise the entirety of the workforce. People come from all walks of life, from a multitude of cultures, ages, backgrounds, etc. Because of this, misunderstanding can result from a lack of understanding of the cultural sensitivities of the individuals. On a baseline level, it is the supervisor’s/manager’s responsibility to become well versed in diversity. There are those critics of diversity training that suggest that such training is a waste of productivity. This is a very knee jerk reaction to the subject that is not entirely based in reality. The reason for this is that the time spent on diversity training will allow the supervisor to understand how to communicate effectively with those under his or her supervision. This ability to communicate on a culturally sensitive level will eliminate a great many problems that may exist in the office environment. By eliminating these problems, productivity is no longer seriously threatened. Of course, there needs to be a solid development of basic communicative school (written and oral) in order to effectively deal with their subordinates. Without solid communicative skills, a supervisor will never be able to effectively present company policies or important issues to employees. In other words, there can be no leadership without effective communicative abilities. How successful could any supervisor be if the ability to supervise was undermined by being ineffective in the role as a company  communicator? More than likely, the supervisor would be very ineffective in even the most minor aspects of the position much less highly complex and sensitive aspects. Consider the following: when a supervisor effectively communicates with subordinates while tempering sensitivity to the employees’ specific needs and concerns, then the employees develops and attitude that will be more willing to follow the guidelines of the supervisor. In other words, leadership becomes effective because faith and trust in the leadership of the supervisor becomes affirmed. Consider the opposite extreme: the frustrated supervisor who uses threats of disciplinary action or verbal belittlement as a means of ‘motivating’ employees. While such tactics may force employees into following the directives that have been put forth, they will do so begrudgingly. In most cases, such employees will be looking to leave such a job as soon as the opportunity permits. While these employees may take orders from a superior, the superior is hardly being an effective leader and CERTAINLY such actions can not be used to smooth over any hostilities that might exist in the workforce. As such, belligerent tactics of this ilk must be avoided at all costs. In summation, in order to be a successful leader and smooth over any issues that may arise in the workforce requires two things: a sensitivity towards the diversity of the workforce and a solid skill in communicative abilities in order to effectively convey the message of leadership. If these areas are lacking, effective leadership will be undermined. If these skills are developed to a significant degree, the ability to be an effective leader will be greatly enhanced. Ultimately, it becomes the choice of the individual whether or not to develop such skills and it will be a true leader will take up the challenge. How to cite Leadership in the Work Environment, Essay examples

Organizational Learning Journal of Applied Communication

Question: Describe about the Organizational Learning for Journal of Applied Communication. Answer: Introduction The changes experienced in the current century are presenting numerous challenges to the modern class of societal and organizational leadership. Any organization that is to survive in the ever-changing world must embrace organizational learning. Organizational learning is the ability to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills as an individual or as a group regarding the changing environment, transfer the learned competencies within the organization and guide the organization to adequate performance (Azmi, 2008). An effective modern leader must know how to acquire the skills, share with the group and apply them to transform the institution capacity to perform in new environments. Thus, the paper seeks to use organizational learning theories; experiential theory, social learning theory, assimilation theory, situated learning theory and community of practice and adaptive and generative learning theory to outline how a leader can know, go and show the way. Experiential Learning Theory Experiential learning theory notes that learning takes place through experience. The theory focuses on the learners cognitive abilities to learn from new and challenging situations and transforming the experience into actions. According to Hedin (2000), the development of new ideas and ways of doing things is stimulated by experience. The theory posits that active learning is guided by a cycle of four stages; concrete experience where the learner comes across new situations that force him to do things differently. The reflective observation phase comprises of the learners ability to observe and understand the unfolding. After critical reflection of the experience, the learner engages in a thought-provoking process and develops new ideas or update the exist practices and finally put it into practice to get the desired results. Hayward (2002) notes that though experience, leaders will derive new competencies from any challenging situation, come up with policies to actualize the new ide as and involve the stakeholders for the success of the process. Hence, a good leader will learn from experience, act on the new ideas and guide people on the implementation. For example, the Marriot international company policies of helping disaster-stricken victims, team building and affiliative leadership were facilitated by experiential learning theory. The company which employs people of different cultures was faced with a crisis of regular employees conflict forcing some to leave the workplace. The management learned that conflicts was as a result of lifestyle intolerance among employees and resolved to engage the workers in different tasks of helping disaster-stricken victims in various regions and embark on team building to foster tolerance. The management was able to solve the conflicts and now has a happy diverse workforce. Social Learning Theory The social learning theory stresses that learning occurs in a social context where people learn with and from other people through cognitive processes. Scholz, Dewulf Pahl-Wostl (2014) claims that people learn through observing the behavior of others, evaluate the appropriateness of the consequences and imitating the behavior. The theory points out that for effective learning to occur, the actions of others must capture the attention of the observer and be remembered easily. The reproduction process comprises of the ability to perform the exact actions as observed. However, the critical learning process in this theory is the capacity to relate with the consequences of imitating the actions. Actions perceived to produce highest rewards prompt the willingness to emulate the activities. Leaders can learn socially today through interacting with right people and gaining insights on the trends been deliberated and evaluating the necessity of adopting the practices (Aounallah, 2014). Thus, Organizational leaders should observe the changes in the industries and the measures people are putting in place to handle the changes. Additionally, the leaders should evaluate the significance of those practices and adopt the practices that will yield maximum benefits while guiding their followers to the best mode of implementing the practices. For example, the ASB bank in New Zealand engaged in social learning theory when integrating technology in the bank. The firm set up a new technology system in the bank, launched mobile banking and availed customer cares services on social networking sites in 2013. The banks CEO, Barbara Chapman, admits observing most banks in the industry reaping from simplified and faster services due technology advancement. The CEO launched up strategies to successfully implement the observations and guided the workforce through training. Hence, the bank learned socially; observing and imitating beneficial trends in the industry Assimilation Theory The assimilation learning theory dictates that effective learning occurs through the integration of the newly acquired skills with the existing knowledge. According to Harrison (2000), meaningful learning requires the learner to comprehend the development of the new skills and assimilate them to broaden the concepts. The theory suggests that meaningful learning is built on knowledge acquisition, sharing and utilization through integrating with the already held knowledge. The key to the effective acquisition and use of new knowledge by learners is what they know (Vera Crossan, 2004). The leaders can acquire new knowledge through observation or experience and focus on what they know to improve their practices. Additionally, the leaders should share the newly acquired knowledge with the workforce through a broad range of organizational methods and guide on the skills development necessary to benefit the organization. Thus, using assimilation learning theory, leaders can observe and pic k knowledge from new situations, develop it with the help of what they already know and share with the workforce to facilitate the adoption. For example, Porsche Automotive Company embraced assimilation theory when manufacturing the luxurious Cayenne turbo sports car an improvement of the Macan crossover SUVs. The CEO, Oliver Blume, admits they experienced competition from rival companies such as BMW who launched luxurious and high-speed cars that resonated well with speed lovers. The Company put the observation into actions, sending their engineers to more training and came up with a unique brand with an acceleration of 60km/hr in 4.2 seconds. Thus, the company used the already held knowledge on making speedy sports car to produce more improved products. Situated Learning Theory and the Community of Practice Situated theory and community of practice model posit that involvement and interaction are crucial aspects that facilitate learning. Wenger Snyder (2000) note that social interactions and involving in activities guided by certain beliefs, behaviors and cultures are the perfect grounds for learning and becoming experts. The theory advocates for active relating with the learning activity through carrying out the tasks, hence, learning while doing. People have the ability to gain experience and look like experts in solving issues when the actively engage in community activities (Levitt March, 1988). The quality of Cooperation for a leader is very crucial in understanding and relating to the issue at hand. The leaders can build trust with the followers and win their will to engage in problem-solving activities for the benefit of the community. Hence, leaders can know about organizational and communal problems through being at the center of different practices and initiate measures to s olve the problems and guide people in the best ways. For example, the Common Wealth Bank of Australia leadership was guided by situated learning and community of practice theory when launching the community seed program. The bank marketing and communication department involves actively in the social media dialogue and online challenges with the customers to know what they need. As a strategy to keep on learning from the customers and enhance their services, the community seed program elicits conversation as voting for particular organizations continue. Hence, the leadership learns through online interaction, raise strategies to implement customers need and guide their workforce on successful implementation. Adaptive and Generative Learning Theory The adaptive and generative learning model stresses that learning occurs through development or modification of the existing knowledge. Chiva, Grando Alegre (2010) note that active learning encompasses engaging and connecting with activity, reflecting and cognitively choosing of the best conduct. Adaptive theory demands that a learner pays attention to the existing knowledge and influence it with improved thinking to achieve set targets. The generative approach advocates for a learner to engage in a thought-provoking process to come up with non-existing ways of doing things. A learner should engage in a cognitive process to evaluate the different mode of doing things and supplement his practices or come up with entirely new methods (Sharma, Gupta Wickramasinghe, 2005). Using the adaptive and generative learning theory, leaders should strive to gain knowledge through observations and experience and engage in thoughts on how to leverage product and brands. Furthermore, the modern lea dership can engage in research, experimenting with various practices to come up with the suitable mode of doing things (Bass, 2000). Thus, successful leaders should learn through provocative thinking, adopting the best practice and transferring the knowledge to the workforce. For example, the Asahi soft drink company used the adaptive and generative learning theory when coming up with new products such as Asahi Soukai and new Schweppes. The CEO, Atsushi Katsuki admits the company faced challenges of changes in customer preferences and stiff competition from other brands such as Coca-Cola. The company used the adaptive theory and enhanced their products through improved thinking. Additionally, the company closed some production plants to reduce the cost of production and compete effectively; a clear indicator of generative learning. Conclusion Consequently, various organizational learning theories outline the different way of acquiring knowledge. Consulting the models will allow leaders develop necessary competencies when encountered with challenging situations. The leaders will develop strategies to actualize the new ideas and guide the followers to successful implements the ideas. Hence, a good leader will learn, act and show the way. Referencing Azmi, F. T. (2008). Organizational Learning: Crafting a Strategic Framework. The Icfai University Journal of Business Strategy, 5(2), 58-70. Aounallah, N. (2014). The New Social Learning: A Guide to Transforming Organizations through Social Media. Journal of Applied Communications, 98(1), 6-8. Bass, B. M. (2000). The Future of Leadership in Learning Organizations. Journal of leadership organizational studies, 7(3), 18-40. Chiva, R., Grando, A., Alegre, J. (2010). Adaptive and Generative Learning: Implications from Complexity Theories. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12(2), 114-129. Harrison, R. (2000). Learning, Knowledge Productivity and Strategic Progress. International Journal of Training and Development, 4(4), 244-258. Hayward, M. L. (2002). When Do Firms Learn from their Acquisition Experience? Evidence from 1990 to 1995. Strategic management journal, 23(1), 21-39. Hedin, N. (2010). Experiential Learning: Theory and Challenges. Christian Education Journal, 7(1), 107. Levitt, B., March, J. G. (1988). Organizational Learning. Annual review of sociology, 319-340. Scholz, G., Dewulf, A., Pahl-Wostl, C. (2014). An Analytical Framework of Social Learning Facilitated by Participatory ,Methods. Systemic Practice and Action Research, 27(6), 575-591. Sharma, S. K., Gupta, J. N., Wickramasinghe, N. (2005). A Framework for Building a Learning Organisation in the 21st Century. International Journal of Innovation and Learning, 2(3), 261-273. Vera, D., Crossan, M. (2004). Strategic Leadership and Organizational Learning. Academy of management review, 29(2), 222-240. Wenger, E. C., Snyder, W. M. (2000). Communities of practice: The Organizational Frontier. Harvard business review, 78(1), 139-146.

How Has Moral Studies Influenced the Way We Look at Our Lives Essay Example

How Has Moral Studies Influenced the Way We Look at Our Lives Essay How it has affected our lives : The one thing that has separated humans from being the animals they are as stated in the evolution theory is that humans are civilized. To put it in layman’s terms, we are on a different level of social, cultural, and moral development and therefore considered to be more advanced. To be civilized, we have to learn to live together with the environment and ourselves while making sure that we know the differentiation of what is â€Å"good† and what is â€Å"bad†. We need knowledge and skills to be able to evaluate intentions, decisions, and actions between what is right and wrong. This is the essence of morality, the reference point from which the fundamental laws of human living is defined. Moral values uphold the right behavior and appropriate response to a given situation. For example, should a thief be caught stealing money from a shop, the offender will be handed over to the police rather than have him being beaten up by the shop owner. Another example would be the burning of forests to procur land for farming. Here, this action causes environmental and health issues. Financially speaking the land will generate money but morally will affect the health of the people affected by the pollution and displace wild animals from their habitat. Why the moral values are important : Moral values are the building blocks of our lives, the core of civilization where one good of a minority cannot over ride the greater good of a community. It does not condone individual acts either when it oppresses others’ rights. So what constitutes moral values? It includes honesty, justice, diligence, compassion, kindness, humility, forgiveness, generosity amongst many others. We will write a custom essay sample on How Has Moral Studies Influenced the Way We Look at Our Lives specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on How Has Moral Studies Influenced the Way We Look at Our Lives specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on How Has Moral Studies Influenced the Way We Look at Our Lives specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer These are also not just behaviours but attitudes as well. Being moral requires courage that can guide us through life’s obstacles. Anyone who has courage can bravely face the world. It makes us better people when we learn to care more for others than ourselves. Through time moral values become our character, our person. Understanding moral values : However, what are the measurements needed to differentiate between the rights and the wrongs? Different cultures have different moral systems. Take for example those in under developed countries where child slavery still exists. To the child owners, they are helping to provide money to the poor family who is selling off their child but to the rest of the world this practice is cruel. The child’s basic human rights are abused. This has been practiced for a very long time and has been accepted by that society, so what is right to them may not be so with others. How then can we know what constitutes morality in this case? Moral values stems from understanding the reasons and the need for it. Without understanding, our intellect can only shape our thinking and not our desire to apply. Morality and understanding are like a lever and a fulcrum as they can only function if they are both present. This combination of reason and morality is needed for conviction to take place within oneself. The basics of right, wrong, good and bad : Moral studies can also help us in solving moral conflicts in our daily lives. A moral conflict is a dispute that is concerned with the principles or rules of right conduct or the distinction between right and wrong. Someone’s moral values are related to their practice, thinking and language. Different people have different thoughts and practice. A person acts through what they their understand based upon their experience and upon what they think is valuable and important. The way each individual thinks shapes their self identity based on their understanding of facts and issues to help them cope with their problems. For instance, people sometimes differentiate rights and virtues. Each of these is associated with a particular form of society. People from the same cultural backgrounds have similar mindsets. Therefore, their values and behaviour are more or less the same. However, moral conflicts can occur when two parties have different values and beliefs. Moral values and beliefs of a religion are co-related. Teachings of almost any religion teach us to do good, to act good and to be a good human being. They teach us and give us the purpose of life. They teach us what is right and what is wrong. The system of religious beliefs sets parameters around us and our conscience will prick us when we are about to cross the line. Religion can act as a hedge of protection and keep us in check especially when in doubt. Most religious values are the same; to do good to others and to show love. This principle then is the cornerstone from where we develop our moral values. In situations where conflicts arise due to different sets of beliefs and emphasis, tolerance and understanding will always help. Different Sets of Moral Beliefs : All humans will have to know how to differentiate between right and wrong. This is the basis of our moral values, and this is what we are actually taught to differentiate when a Moral Studies class is on. All the 36 values that we have learnt in SPM and the A-Z’s in college moral studies have only one sole purpose, which is to help us set apart the good and the bad in humanity. For an instance, we can take a study from Joshua Greene, a Hazel Associate Professor. He likens the moral brain to a camera that comes with manufactured presets, such as â€Å"portrait† or â€Å"landscape,† along with a manual mode which requires photographers to make adjustments on their own. Emotional responses, which are influenced by humans’ biological makeup and social experiences, are like the presets: fast and efficient, but can also be careless and inflexible. Rationality is like manual mode: adaptable to all kinds of unique scenarios, but time-consuming and cumbersome. According to him, the trick is to know when to point and shoot and when to use the manual mode. To explain it simply, this is how our learned responses are split into the two types i. e. our emotional responses and our rationality. When is it right to show our emotions and when is it right to keep calm and think before a decision? Which situation allows us to do whatever we want or which situation requires us to go against our natural human instincts? This mindset covers everything from homosexuality to abortion. Thus, through this way of thought; we are influenced into processing the responses available for a situation. In moral studies we also learnt that it covers every area of our lives, for example, our working life. Honesty and being trustworthy will help us to have integrity especially when faced with temptations such as stealing data or even funds from our employers. Integrity will help push our career to a higher level as this trait is very valued in the professional life. Holding high moral values can cause others to look up to the person as he would be perceive to be controlled, unbiased and even wise. Others can feel confident relying on him for advice because he can also keep sensitive information private and confidential. It is also important to incorporate the moral value of forgiveness in our personal life. Forgiveness allows you to move past hurtful or damaging situations. It allows you to abandon feelings of anger or resentment against others or yourself and prevents you from falling into feelings of insecurity and self pity. Materialism vs Morality : What is materialism? In the general meaning, people who are the materialistic type are usually preoccupied with or on material things that can provide physical comforts. The characteristic of these people is the greed for more money and they aspire to be rich quickly even if it involves a lot of risks. Such as when they develop the sense of desire to live in very expensive and luxurious houses, wear trendy and popular clothes and jewellery, and drive attractive imported cars. This can lead to an extravagant life. Being greedy for more of wealth is the same as the desire for more power, and corruption might happen. Materialism can give out many negative feelings such as lust, selfishness, jealousy, rage and many more. This can makes people forget their moral values and fail to understand the differences between the rights and wrongs. The worst case is when they lose their faith in God as they cannot believe in anything which they cannot see or touch. The outcome is that they are likely to commit sin. All of these things can affect our modern society and economy of our country. But there is still a hope and a chance for these people to make some changes in their outlook and separate themselves from the material world. They may have less material things but they can be happy that they do not lose themselves and the support of their families when they allow themselves to learn from their mistakes. So, morality helps us to know our real identity. That way, we can prevent the influence of materialism from blocking our inner growth. Human characteristics : There are apparently 7 ways that humans are different from animals. Humans have speech, flexible hands, extraordinary brains, upright postures, wears clothes, have the ability to control fire and blush. The last four are actually related to morality in the sense that they are all part of learned responses. In other words, without moral studies, we will have only three ways to put ourselves apart from animals. Firstly, let’s take into account the importance of an upright posture. In the Victorian era, all men and omen are required to stand upright. Those who do not do so will be looked down upon by society and can even be charged in court. Then, we have clothing. This can be dated back even to prehistoric times when the first humans wore animal skins as protection against animal attacks. Now, clothing is considered the basis of fashion and also a basic part of morality where public nudity can get you charged with indecent behaviour in the current Malaysian court. After that, our abilities are also gauged in the eyes of others. We can use fire to help ourselves with many things or kill many with arson. Besides that, one’s blushing can hint to us what a person’s thought may be. Self discovery : Self-discovery is the series of events when a person tries to find out and understand how he feels about spiritual issues or priorities, rather than following the opinions of his friends, family or peer pressure. It is about finding oneself, the true inner self. Many of you might have watched the ‘Eat Pray Love’ movie which was released in 2010. That movie was also connected with the idea of a journey of self-discovery. The movie is akin to a pilgrimage in search of one’s spiritual significance . It portrays the search as something that is achievable if only one would put his determination to it. The end result would be an empowerment to live one’s life as one dictates it and not to fall into the pressures and complexities of society’s thinking. When a person is empowered in his outlook on life he gains power over his thoughts and actions and is able to find strength to push forward with his own beliefs even if there may be obstacles. As he becomes at peace with himself he becomes comfortable in living out his convictions. He then becomes the leader rather than the follower.

Juvenile Corrections Essays

Juvenile Corrections Essays Juvenile Corrections Essay Juvenile Corrections Essay Com II How does the media stereotype you? *Come as your favorite stereotype: By Ego Aviators. Stereotypes Japanese women as some people may think of them. It shows a Japanese girl with slanted eyes, white paint on her face and dressed in a robe. (Race and Culture) *Will Stereotype for food: By The Latino Comedy Project. Stereotypes Mexicans as people with out Jobs that will do any line of work to get by. It has four Mexicans In the back of a truck holding up a sign saying will stereotype for food. Race and Culture) *The Arabs are coming: By New York Arab comedy festival. Stereotypes that Arabs will always have a camel with them because they are from the desert. It shows a camel with sunglasses in Hollywood. ( Race and Culture) *Whos a Looter? : By Tania Rally. Stereotypes a young black male of stealing because of how he looks. Shows two pictures on of a young black male with bags and is stereotyped of stealing as in the second picture has a white male and white female and they Just found the things they are holding. Race and Culture) Gay Asian-American Male Seeking Home. : by Chon-suck Han. Stereotypes a gay Aslant male by say how Aslant all reading look Like theyre more feminine then other males. (Race, Gender, Culture, and Sexual orientation) *On Covers of Many Magazines, a full racial palette is still rare. : by David Carr. Stereotypes White women as being or important for people to see on a cover of a magazine. (Race and Culture) *Not Only Natalie is Missing. : by Anne-Mar ie OConnor. Stereotypes how white women are shown in the media over other races and genders. Tells use how people will listen more of a white girl missing over another kind of kidnapping. (Race, Culture, and Gender) *Skin Deep What polls of Minorities Mils. : BY David Boosts. Tells use that polls only show use Stereotypes that may be true for some of the people but not all of them. Also Monitor use Tanat ten polls will always n (Race and Culture) more data to Increase Its result. *Advertising Sets Double Standard for the Male Gender. : By William Sea. Stereotype males of being men and they should act a certain way to be a man. It tells use about a commercial that shows a man that is successful being macho, watching sports, and drinking beer and tells use that thats how we need to be to be successful. (Gender and Culture) *Graphic Artist Carefully Assigns Ethnicities to Anthropomorphic Recyclables. : Appeared in august 2003 in the Onion. Tells use of how the artist is trying to get every different tip of race and sexual orientation as recyclable objects. Such as a black man as a trash can and a Mexican as a can. (Race, Gender, Sexual orientation,

Research paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Research Paper Example Street literature is a genre involving an insightful look into the ghetto life (Morris et al. 20). The stories of â€Å"Midnight: A Gangster Love Story,† â€Å"Midnight and the Meaning of Love,† and â€Å"The Coldest Winter Ever† all fall within this gangsta realism that makes readers experience the high price of ghetto life through the characters. Street literature typically involves people from the African-American descent, and the main characters are usually mid-teens to mid-20s in age. They are usually depicted as people who go through extraordinary struggles in life, and they survive through obstacles such as violence, racism, and severe poverty. The whole story is filled with ghetto language, and this is more formally known as the African American Vernacular English (AAVE). The setting is usually in urban areas, and hip hop culture is the dominant scenario. Themes usually revolve around prostitution, premarital sex, illegal sex, crime, drugs, abortion, viol ence, and other illegal activities. The three novels mentioned above circle around such themes, and they are set within the urban hip hop milieu. However, despite such seemingly negative backdrop, these stories could serve as cautionary tales, and one does not need to go through the same experiences to learn what the characters learn in their life's journeys. The morals involved in the narratives are usually insightful in terms of understanding the, and learning from, the high price of ghetto life (Wright 42-45). â€Å"Midnight: A Gangster Love Story† is authored by Sister Souljah. It discusses the life of Midnight, a Muslim black immigrant from Sudan. In the opening lines of the book, Midnight is described as a tall guy with a dominating personality. He is pure black, and even his eyes are jet black. He is also described as lean and muscular, and females want to always be near him. Midnight is such a strong character because he never feels intimidated or insecure. Midnight i s a fierce fighter inside and out. Being a fighter is one common characteristic among the main characters in the three street literature novels (Brooks and McNair 129-132). Midnight's young life goes through a process of being sheltered and protected under his father's care, to being vulnerable and open to the dangers of a foreign neighborhood. His character is developed by his experiences, and he bravely surpasses obstacles throughout his teenage years. First, due to hardship, he becomes home schooled, and he escorts his mother daily to and from her sweat shop job. Second, to develop himself, he learns martial arts, and he also becomes a talented basketball player. Third, to get over poverty, he begins to earn his own money through a fish market job, and he helps save up to purchase a bigger house for his family in a less dangerous neighborhood. He gets over hindrances towards his family progress and personal development, that is why even language barrier does not deter him from wi nning the heart of a Japanese beauty named Akemi. His character is shown even further development as he adheres to his strict Muslim principles while courting Akemi. It can therefore be said that surviving one hardship after another makes Midnight who he is in the novel, and makes him a striking protagonist in this street literature (A Gangster). As a further backgrounder, Midnight is a boy who flees Africa at

Spirituality of Miccosukee Indian tribe Research Paper - 1

Spirituality of Miccosukee Indian tribe - Research Paper Example These spirit animals are often seen in a vision quest that each Native American do when they are young. This vision quest is a time for fasting and prayer and the youth hope to see their totem animal that also becomes their guardian (Gold, 2007). The Florida Seminoles and the Miccosukee believe in a Great Spirit or the Breath Maker who is in charge of making and maintaining life (â€Å"Religion of..†, n.d.). The meaning of life is very important to the Miccosukee because they acknowledge that everything is a part of their environment. All life is important. In the old days, when they hunted, they asked the spirit of the animal that was being killed, for forgiveness (â€Å"Religion of† , n.d.). The Miccosukee would also pray to a spirit of a tree before cutting down the tree. The Miccosukee may state that their strength comes from their religion and the fact that they have not adopted the Western ways. Because they are unique in keeping their customs and history, they would also see their matrilineal foundation as being important to their strength. For Native Americans, everything is spiritual and everything has a presence anywhere in the earth (Johnson, 2007). The sweat lodges and shamans are very important to Native Americans and healthcare. Shamans often help with health issues in the tribe because they understand how to interpret dreams and oversee many rituals that take place within the tribe (Johnson, 2007). The sweat lodge is one of the ways that Native Americans are able to keep balanced with the spirit world and with the creator (Garrett, et al., 2011). For Native Americans, the concept of balance means that they will have balance in mind, body, and spirit â€Å"with the natural environment† (Garrett et al., 2011, p. 318). On the spiritual level, the sweat lodge is also done for transformation and renewal of the spirit. In contrast to the way Westerners believe, the concept of transformation traditionally will be done in the presence of family and

Leveraging IT for Business Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Leveraging IT for Business - Assignment Example The benefits of offshoring are numerous to the company that engages in it. These include the reduction of the cost of doing business. Businesses have been able to reduce costs especially on the salaries that it pays out as well as other benefits. This is of benefit to the organization as it enables the organization to continue to function without unnecessary expense added to it (Click and Duening 2005). This is because most of the outsourcing destinations like China, India and other countries offer cheaper labour to these companies that outsource to them. Another benefit of outsourcing is the competitive advantage that it gives to those companies that use it. This is gained both in the local as well as in the international scene. This is due to the lower cost of business operations and the proximity to the available market for the finished goods. On the other hand, the difficulties of outsourcing a business are also present and must be put into consideration. These include the propor tionality of the projects availed and the provider of the BPO to fulfil the obligations. As the size of the provider goes up, so is the risk. At the same time, there is the matter of trust between the provider and recipient. The people or companies that are the recipients of the services that are being outsourced may be unknown. This means that it is a testing venture when a company, for example, far away, Australia decides to entrust its business to a little-known group like in India. The end result may be a poor show of the BPO which may be a great threat to the survival of the company. Another challenge to outsourcing is that it has the capacity to cause brain drain. According to unions within Australia, the outsourcing has driven a number of nationals from Australia to other countries in search of better terms of employment (Switzer 2006). This is because when companies outsource, they reduce the number of local jobs that they have. This is nature of unemployment that drives the job seekers elsewhere to try and survive. Outsourcings will, therefore, cost the country a lot of its highly productive labour.  

Terminator Wave Energy Devices

Terminator Wave Energy Devices 1.0 Executive Summary The offshore ocean wave energy resource, as a derivative form of solar energy, has considerable potential for making a significant contribution to the alternative usable energy supply.Wave power devices are generally categorized by the method used to capture the energy of the waves. They can also be categorized by location and power take-off system. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups; (1) Oscillating water Column (OWC) (2) Overtopping Devices (OTD) (3) Wave Activated Bodies (WAB); Locations are shoreline, near shore and offshore. This report discusses about Terminator wave energy devices which extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. These devices are typically onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. 2.0 Introduction Traditional sources of energy such as oil, gas, and coal are non-renewable. They also create pollution by releasing huge quantities of carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere. In contrast, waves are a renewable source of energy that doesnt cause pollution. The energy from waves alone could supply the worlds electricity needs. The total power of waves breaking on the worlds coastlines is estimated at 2 to 3 million megawatts. In some locations, the wave energy density can average 65 megawatts per mile of coastline. The problem is how to harness wave energy efficiently and with minimal environmental, social, and economic impacts. Ocean waves are caused by the wind as it blows across the open expanse of water, the gravitational pull from the sun and moon, and changes in atmospheric pressure, earthquakes etc. Waves created by the wind are the most common waves and the waves relevant for most wave energy technology. Wave energy conversion takes advantage of the ocean waves caused primarily by the interaction of winds with the ocean surface. Wave energy is an irregular oscillating low-frequency energy source. They are a powerful source of energy, but are difficult to harness and convert into electricity in large quantities. The energy needs to be converted to a 60 or 50 Hertz frequency before it can be added to the electric utility grid. Part of the solar energy received by our planet is converted to wind energy through the differential heating of the earth. In turn part of the wind energy is transferred to the water surface, thereby forming waves. While the average solar energy depends on factors such as local climate and latitude, the amount of energy transferred to the waves and hence their resulting size depends on the wind speed, the duration of the winds and the duration over which it blows. The most energetic waves on earth happen to be between 30 degrees to 60 degrees latitude, in general the waves generated are stronger on the southern parts of the countries (John brook, ECOR). Wave power devices extract energy directly from the surface motion of ocean waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface. Wave power varies considerably in different parts of the world, and wave energy cant be harnessed effectively everywhere. It has been estimated that if less than 0.1% of the renewable energy available within the oceans could be converted into electricity, it would satisfy the present world demand for energy more than five times over. A variety of technologies are available to capture the energy from waves. Wave technologies have been designed to be installed in near shore, offshore, and far offshore locations. Offshore systems are situated in deep water, typically of more than 40 meters (131 feet). Types of power take-off include: hydraulic ram, elastomeric hose pump, pump-to-shore, hydroelectric turbine, air turbine and linear electrical generator. Some of these designs incorporate parabolic reflectors as a means of increasing the wave energy at the point of capture. 3.0 Type of Wave Energy Converters Ocean waves represent a form of renewable energy created by wind currents passing over open water. Many devices are being developed for exploiting wave energy. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups (Harris Robert E. et al.): Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) Waves cause the water column to rise and fall, which alternately compresses and depressurize an air column. The energy is extracted from the resulting oscillating air flow by using a Wells turbine Overtopping Devices (OTD) Ocean waves are elevated into a reservoir above the sea level, which store the water. The energy is extracted by using the difference in water level between the reservoir and the sea by using low head turbines Wave Activated Bodies (WAB) Waves activate the oscillatory motions of body parts of a device relative to each other, or of one body part relative to a fixed reference. Primarily heave, pitch and roll motions can be identified as oscillating motions whereby the energy is extracted from the relative motion of the bodies or from the motion of one body relative to its fixed reference by using typically hydraulic systems to compress oil, which is then used to drive a generator. The wave activated bodies (WABs) can be further categorized in sub-groups describing the energy extraction by the principle motion of the floating body (heave, pitch and roll). A variety of technologies have been proposed to capture the energy from waves based on above extraction methods; Some of the technologies that have been the target of recent developmental efforts and are appropriate for the offshore applications being considered are terminators, attenuators and point absorbers (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Figure 1: Schematic drawings of WEC devices for operating principles and principal locations(Harris Robert E. et al.) The many different types of wave energy converters (WECs) can be classified in to various ways depending on their horizontal size and orientation. If the size is very small compared to the typical wavelength the WEC is called a point absorber. In contrast if the size is comparable to or larger than the typical wavelength, the WEC is known as line absorber, this can also be referred to as terminator or attenuator. A WEC is called terminator or attenuator if it is aligned along or normal to the prevailing direction of the wave crest respectively (John brook, ECOR). The relationship between the three main classifications Principal Location Operating Principle Directional Characteristic: These classifications are shown in Figure 2, presenting the possible operating principles for the location and the directional characteristics. At the shoreline the only feasible operating principles are oscillating water columns and overtopping devices, which are terminators. Figure shows that at near shore and offshore, point absorber or attenuator devices can only be WABs, whilst for terminator devices all three categories of the operating principles are possible. OWCs and OTDs are ‘static’ energy converters of the terminator kind. As a result their mooring has to be stiff, restraining modes of motions but allowing for adjustment towards a parallel wave approach and for tidal ranges. The station keeping requirements for the mooring of wave activated bodies can be either static or dynamic. Figure 2: Possible operating principles for the principal location and directional characteristic 3.1 Attenuators Attenuators are long multi-segment floating structures oriented parallel to the direction of the wave travel. The differing heights of waves along the length of the device causes flexing where the segments connect, and this flexing is connected to hydraulic pumps or other converters (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). 3.2 Point Absorbers Point absorbers have a small horizontal dimension compared with the vertical dimension and utilize the rise and fall of the wave height at a single point for WEC (Harris Robert E. et al.). It is relatively small compared to the wave length and is able to capture energy from a wave front greater than the physical dimension of the absorber (James, 2007). The efficiency of a terminator or attenuator device is linked to their principal axis being, according, parallel or orthogonal to the incoming wave crest. The point absorber does not have a principal wave direction and is able to capture energy from waves arriving from any direction. As a consequence the station keeping for the terminator and attenuator has to allow the unit to weathervane into the predominant wave direction, but this is not necessary for the point absorber (Harris Robert E. et al.). 3.3 Terminators A Terminator has its principal axis parallel to the incident wave crest and terminates the wave. These devices extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. The reflected and transmitted waves determine the efficiency of the device (Harris Robert E. et al.). These devices are typically installed onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). There are mainly two types in Terminator WEC. 3.3.1 Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) The oscillating water column (OWC) is a form of terminator in which water enters through a subsurface opening into a chamber with air trapped above it. The wave action causes the captured water column to move up and down like a piston to force the air through an opening connected to a turbine (U.S. Department of the Interior May 2006). The device consists essentially of a floating or (more usually) bottom-fixed structure, whose upper part forms an air chamber and whose immersed part is open to the action of the sea. The reciprocating flow of air displaced by the inside free surface motion drives an air turbine mounted on the top of the structure. 3.3.1.1 Efficiency of Oscillating Water Column (OWC) The efficiency of oscillating water column (OWC) wave energy devices are particularly affected by flow oscillations basically for two reasons. (1) Because of intrinsically unsteady (reciprocating) flow of air displaced by the oscillating water free surface. (2) Because of increasing the air flow rate, above a limit depending on, and approximately proportional to, the rotational speed of the turbine, is known to give rise to a rapid drop in the aerodynamic efficiency and in the power output of the turbine. A method which has been proposed to partially circumvent this problem consists in controlling the pitch of the turbine rotor blades in order to prevent the instantaneous angle of incidence of the relative flow from exceeding the critical value above which severe stalling occurs at the rotor blades (see Gato and FalcaËÅ"o, 1991). Although considered technically feasible (Salter, 1993) this has never been implemented at full scale owing to mechanical difficulties. Alternately, the flow rate through the turbine can be prevented from becoming excessive by equipping the device with air valves. Two different schemes can be envisaged, in the first one, the valves are mounted between the chamber and the atmosphere in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valves, on or near the roof of the air chamber structure) and are made to open (by active or passive control) in order to prevent the overpressure (or the under pressure) in the chamber to exceed a limit which is defined by the aerodynamic characteristics of the turbine at its instantaneous speed. In the second scheme a valve is mounted in series with the turbine in the duct connecting the chamber and the atmosphere. Excessive flow rate is prevented by partially closing the valve. In both schemes, the air flow through the turbine is controlled at the expense of energy dissipation at the valves. Theoretically the two methods, if properly implemented, are equivalent from the point of view of limiting the flow rate through the turbine. However, the resulting pressure changes in the chamber are different (reduction and increase in pressure oscillations in the first and second cases, respectively). Consequently the hydrodynamic process of energy extraction from the waves is differently modified by valve operation in the two control methods. The main purpose of this work is to analyse theoretically the performance of an OWC wave energy device when valves are used to limit the flow through the turbine. Both schemes are considered and compared: a valve (or a set of valves) mounted in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valve) or a valve mounted in the turbine duct. The hydrodynamic analysis is done in the time domain for regular as well as for irregular waves. The spring-like effect due to the compressibility of the air is taken into account and is discussed in some detail. Realistic characteristics are assumed for the turbine. Numerical results are presented for simple two-dimensional chamber geometry for whose hydrodynamic coefficients analytical expressions are known as functions of wave frequency. 3.3.2 Overtopping Devices (OTD) Overtopping devices have reservoirs that are filled by impinging waves to levels above the average surrounding ocean. The released reservoir water is used to drive hydro turbines or other conversion devices. Overtopping devices have been designed and tested for both onshore and floating offshore applications. It gathers the energy by waves overtopping into a raised reservoir, and extracting this by draining the water through low head turbines. OTD consists of three main elements: Two wave reflectors. Attached to the central platform these act to focus the incoming waves. The main platform. This is a floating reservoir with a doubly curved ramp facing the incoming waves. The waves overtop the ramp which has a variable crest freeboard 1 to 4 m and underneath the platform open chambers operate as an air cushion maintaining the level of the reservoir. Hydro turbines. A set of low head turbines converts the hydraulic head in the reservoir (Tedd James et al., 2005) 3.3.2.1 Overtopping theory The theory for modeling overtopping devices varies greatly from the traditional linear systems approach used by most other WECs. A linear systems approach may be used with overtopping devices. This considers the water oscillating up and down the ramp as the excited body, and the crest of the ramp as a highly non-linear power take off system. However due to the non-linearities it is too computationally demanding to model usefully. Therefore a more physical approach is taken. Figure 4 shows the schematic of flows for the Wave Dragon. Depending on the current wave state (HS, Tp) and the crest freeboard Rc(height of the ramp crest above mean water level, MWL) of the device, water will overtop into the reservoir Qovertopping. The power gathered by the reservoir is a product of this overtopping flow, the crest freeboard and gravity. If the reservoir is over filled when a large volume is deposited in the basin there will be loss from it Qspill. To minimize this, the reservoir level h must be kept below its maximum level hR. The useful hydraulic power converted by the turbines is the product of turbine flow Qturbine, the head across them, water density and gravity (Tedd James et al., 2005). In coastal engineering the average flow Q is converted into non dimensional form by dividing by the breadth of the device b, gravity g and the significant wave height HS: In the case of the floating OTD it has been seen that there is a dependency on the wave period. The dominant physical explanation for this is the effect of energy passing beneath the draft of the structure. Figure 6 Layout of OTD 3.3.2.2 Wave Reflector Wings One of the most distinctive aspects of the Overtopping WEC is the long slender wings mounted to the front corners of the reservoir platform. These are designed to reflect the oncoming waves towards the ramp. A wider section of wave is available to be exploited with only a moderate increase in capital cost. The overtopping volume in a wave is very dependent on the wave height; therefore by providing only a moderate increase in height, much more energy can overtop the ramp. In order to choose the correct lengths, angles, and position of these wings extensive computer modelling is used. Secondary bonuses of the presence of the wave reflector wings include: better weather-vaning performance to face the waves, lower peak mooring forces, and improved horizontal stability of the main platform. As the aft and rear mooring attachment points are separated further, the yaw of the platform is more stable. Therefore the device will not turn away from the predominant wave direction, and will also realign itself faster as when the wave direction changes (Tedd James et al., 2005). Lastly the reflectors wings act as stabilisers to the device. As they float under their own buoyancy they counteract any list of the platform. This is important as the more horizontal the platform is kept the less water is spilt and so the more efficient the device operation. 3.3.2.3 Low Head Turbines and Power Train Turbine operating conditions in a WEC are quite different from the ones in a normal hydro power plant. In the OTD, the turbine head range is typically between 1.0 and 4.0 m, which is on the lower bounds of existing water turbine experience. While there are only slow and relatively small variations of flow and head in a river hydro power plant, the strong stochastic variations of the wave overtopping call for a radically different mode of operation in the OTD. The head, being a function of the significant wave height, is varying in a range as large as 1:4, and the discharge has to be regulated within time intervals as short as ten seconds in order to achieve a good efficiency of the energy exploitation (Tedd James et al., 2005). On an unmanned offshore device, the environmental conditions are much rougher, and routine maintenance work is much more difficult to perform. Special criteria for the choice and construction of water turbines for the WEC have to be followed; it is advisable to aim for constructional simplicity rather than maximum peak efficiency. Figure 6 shows the application ranges of the known turbine types in a graph of head H vs. rotational speed nq. The specific speed nq is a turbine parameter characterizing the relative speed of a turbine, thus giving an indication of the turbines power density. Evidently, all turbine types except the Pelton and the cross flow type are to be found in a relatively narrow band running diagonally across the graph. Transgressing the left or lower border means that the turbine will run too slowly, thus being unnecessarily large and expensive. The right or upper border is defined by technological limits, namely material strength and the danger of cavitations erosion. The Pelton and the cross-flow turbine do not quite follow these rules, as they have a runner which is running in air and is only partially loaded with a free jet of water. Thus, they have a lower specific speed and lower power density. Despite its simplicity and robustness, the cross flow turbine is not very suitable for OTD applications (Tedd James et al., 2005). Figure 7 Head range of the common turbine types, Voith and Ossberger 3.3.2.4 Performance in Storms Survivability is essential, and Overtopping devices are naturally adapted to perform well in storm situations, where the wave will pass over and under the device with no potential end-stop problems. 3.3.2.5 Wave Prediction Performance of almost all wave energy converters can be improved with prediction of the incoming waves. The cost to implement would be low as the control hardware is typically in place, only the measuring system and improved control techniques need to be developed. To explain the concept behind the device a simple example can be used. If a measurement of some wavelengths ahead of the wave energy converter shows large waves passing, then at a given time later this energy will be incident on the device. The control of the device can then be altered quickly to extract this larger energy, e.g. by increasing hydraulic resistance to an oscillator’s motion allowing more energy to be captured within the stroke length, or by draining the reservoir of an overtopping device to allow for a large overtopping volume(Tedd James et al., 2005). The challenges are threefold; to implement a system for measuring the waves approaching the ramp, to accurately transform this into usable input for the control systems, and to construct new control strategies to make the best use of this. The standard approach for performing such deterministic sea-state prediction involves discrete frequency domain techniques. This is computationally intensive, as the two Fourier transforms must be made to convert from the time domain to the frequency domain and return to the time domain. 3.4 Energy Capture and Practical Limits The power captured from waves by the primary mechanical conversion (before secondary conversion to electrical power) can be related to the energy in the incoming waves over a certain width. Theoretical values have been established in some cases. For a heaving axi-symmetric body the maximum capture width is the inverse of the wave number. The capture width is often compared to the front width of the device. This width ratio can be larger than one for a point absorber with small dimensions compared to the wavelength. Viscous effects reduce efficiency. For an OWC, Wang et al. (2002) found that the capture width ratio may reach a value of 3 and above at an optimum wave period. For Pelamis, Retlzler et al. (2001) found a capture width up to 2 in regular waves and around one in random seas (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). A continuous or a semi discrete array of wave energy converters acting as an absorbing wall perpendicular to the wave direction is called a terminator and its capture width equals the width of the device and is not related to the length of the incident waves. As the wave conditions are stochastic, the tuning parameters of the energy converters are compromises between the optimum values at various sea conditions. The capture width must be established for each sea state. Fixed devices are subject to sea level variation according to tidal effects. This is critical for fixed oscillating water columns and fixed overtopping systems whose performances are dependent on the mean sea level. The intake of an OWC must be located at an optimised design level from the mean free surface. The height of an overtopping system is also optimised for sea states occurring at a given mean sea level. Therefore, sites with minimal tide are preferred. From this point of view floating devices are more suitable. The immersion of a floating device can also be tuned with respect to the actual sea state. For instance the Wave Dragon overtopping device is partially floating on air chambers and its draught can be modified (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). The performance of the overtopping device is sensitive to the distribution of the overtopping rate. The more variable the overtopping flow into the reservoir, the larger the capacity of the reservoir and turbines must be to achieve the same performance. 4.0 Mooring Requirements The two major requirements for a WEC mooring are to withstand the environmental and other loadings involved in keeping the device on station, and to be sufficiently cost effective so that the overall economics of the device remain viable. The following list shows the requirements that need to be considered for WEC moorings systems (Harris Robert E. et al.): The primary purpose of the mooring system is to maintain the floating structure on station within specified tolerances under normal operating load and extreme storm load conditions. The excursion of the device must not permit tension loads in the electrical transmission cable(s) and should allow for suitable specified clearance distances between devices in multiple installations. The mooring system must be sufficiently compliant to the environmental loading to reduce the forces acting on anchors, mooring lines and the device itself to a minimum; unless the stiffness of the mooring itself is an active element in the wave energy conversion principle used. All components must have adequate strength, fatigue life and durability for the operational lifetime, and marine growth and corrosion need to be considered. A degree of redundancy is highly desirable for individual devices, and essential for schemes which link several devices together. The system as a whole should be capable of lasting for 30 years or more, with replacement of particular components at no less than 5 years. The mooring must be sufficient to accommodate the tidal range at the installation location. The mooring system should allow the removal of single devices without affecting the mooring of adjacent devices. Removal of mooring lines for inspection and maintenance must be possible. The mooring must be sufficiently stiff to allow berthing for inspection and maintenance purposes. Contact between mooring lines must be avoided. The mooring should not adversely affect the efficiency of the device, and if it is part of an active control system it must also be designed dynamically as part of the overall WEC system. Revenues from WECs, in comparison to the offshore industry, are smaller and their economics more strongly linked to the location, installation costs and down time periods. The mooring system has an important impact on the economics and it is necessary to provide, at low installation cost, a reliable system that has little downtime and long intervals between maintenance. The suitability of design approaches from the offshore industry for WECs are ranked in Appendix I (Harris Robert E. et al.). 5.0 Environmental Considerations Conversion of wave energy to electrical or other usable forms of energy is generally anticipated to have limited environmental impacts. However, as with any emerging technology, the nature and extent of environmental considerations remain uncertain. The impacts that would potentially occur are also very site specific, depending on physical and ecological factors that vary considerably for potential ocean sites. As large-scale prototypes and commercial facilities are developed, these factors can be expected to be more precisely defined (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). The following environmental considerations require monitoring (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Visual appearance and noiseare device-specific, with considerable variability in visible freeboard height and noise generation above and below the water surface. Devices with OWCs and overtopping devices typically have the highest freeboard and are most visible. Offshore devices would require navigation hazard warning devices such as lights, sound signals, radar reflectors, and contrasting day marker painting. However, Coast Guard requirements only require that day markers be visible for 1 nautical mile (1.8 km), and thus offshore device markings would only be seen from shore on exceptionally clear days. The air being drawn in and expelled in OWC devices is likely to be the largest source of above-water noise. Some underwater noise would occur from devices with turbines, hydraulic pumps, and other moving parts. The frequency of the noise may also be a consideration in evaluating noise impacts. Reduction in wave height from wave energy converterscould be a consideration in some settings; however, the impact on wave characteristics would generally only be observed 1 to 2 km away from the WEC device in the direction of the wave travel. Thus there should not be a significant onshore impact if the devices were much more than this distance from the shore. None of the devices currently being developed would harvest a large portion of the wave energy, which would leave a relatively calm surface behind the devices. It is estimated that with current projections, a large wave energy facility with a maximum density of devices would cause the reduction in waves to be on the order of 10 to 15%, and this impact would rapidly dissipate within a few kilometers, but leave a slight lessening of waves in the overall vicinity. Little information is available on the impact on sediment transport or on biological communities from a reduction in wave height offshore. An isolated impact, such as reduced wave height for recreational surfers, could possibly result. Marine habitatcould be impacted positively or negatively depending on the nature of additional submerged surfaces, above-water platforms, and changes in the seafloor. Artificial above-water surfaces could provide habitat for seals and sea lions or nesting areas for birds. Underwater surfaces of WEC devices would provide substrates for various biological systems, which could be a positive or negative complement to existing natural habitats. With some WEC devices, it may be necessary to control the growth of marine organisms on some surfaces. Toxic releasesmay be of concern related to leaks or accidental spills of liquids used in systems with working hydraulic fluids. Any impacts could be minimized through the selection of nontoxic fluids and careful monitoring, with adequate spill response plans and secondary containment design features. Use of biocides to control growth of marine organisms may also be a source of toxic releases. Conflict with other sea space users, such as commercial shipping and fishing and recreational boating, can occur without the careful selection of sites for WEC devices. The impact can potentially be positive for recreational and commercial fisheries if the devices provide for additional biological habitats. Installation and Decommissioning: Disturbances from securing the devices to the ocean floor and installation of cables may have negative impacts on marine habitats. Potential decommissioning impacts are primarily related to disturbing marine habitats that have adapted to the presence of the wave energy structures. 6.0 Discussions A vast number of parameters influence (and interact with) the net power production from any WEC: Overtopping, determined by Free-board (adjustable in Wave Dragons) Actual wave height Physical dimension of the converter (ramps, reflectors etc. Outlet, determined by Size of reservoir Turbine design Turbine on/off strategy Mooring system, free or restricted orientation toward waves Size of the energy converter Wave climate Energy in wave front (kW/m) Distribution of wave heights Availability Theoretical availability; Reliability, maintainability, serviceab Terminator Wave Energy Devices Terminator Wave Energy Devices 1.0 Executive Summary The offshore ocean wave energy resource, as a derivative form of solar energy, has considerable potential for making a significant contribution to the alternative usable energy supply.Wave power devices are generally categorized by the method used to capture the energy of the waves. They can also be categorized by location and power take-off system. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups; (1) Oscillating water Column (OWC) (2) Overtopping Devices (OTD) (3) Wave Activated Bodies (WAB); Locations are shoreline, near shore and offshore. This report discusses about Terminator wave energy devices which extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. These devices are typically onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. 2.0 Introduction Traditional sources of energy such as oil, gas, and coal are non-renewable. They also create pollution by releasing huge quantities of carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere. In contrast, waves are a renewable source of energy that doesnt cause pollution. The energy from waves alone could supply the worlds electricity needs. The total power of waves breaking on the worlds coastlines is estimated at 2 to 3 million megawatts. In some locations, the wave energy density can average 65 megawatts per mile of coastline. The problem is how to harness wave energy efficiently and with minimal environmental, social, and economic impacts. Ocean waves are caused by the wind as it blows across the open expanse of water, the gravitational pull from the sun and moon, and changes in atmospheric pressure, earthquakes etc. Waves created by the wind are the most common waves and the waves relevant for most wave energy technology. Wave energy conversion takes advantage of the ocean waves caused primarily by the interaction of winds with the ocean surface. Wave energy is an irregular oscillating low-frequency energy source. They are a powerful source of energy, but are difficult to harness and convert into electricity in large quantities. The energy needs to be converted to a 60 or 50 Hertz frequency before it can be added to the electric utility grid. Part of the solar energy received by our planet is converted to wind energy through the differential heating of the earth. In turn part of the wind energy is transferred to the water surface, thereby forming waves. While the average solar energy depends on factors such as local climate and latitude, the amount of energy transferred to the waves and hence their resulting size depends on the wind speed, the duration of the winds and the duration over which it blows. The most energetic waves on earth happen to be between 30 degrees to 60 degrees latitude, in general the waves generated are stronger on the southern parts of the countries (John brook, ECOR). Wave power devices extract energy directly from the surface motion of ocean waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface. Wave power varies considerably in different parts of the world, and wave energy cant be harnessed effectively everywhere. It has been estimated that if less than 0.1% of the renewable energy available within the oceans could be converted into electricity, it would satisfy the present world demand for energy more than five times over. A variety of technologies are available to capture the energy from waves. Wave technologies have been designed to be installed in near shore, offshore, and far offshore locations. Offshore systems are situated in deep water, typically of more than 40 meters (131 feet). Types of power take-off include: hydraulic ram, elastomeric hose pump, pump-to-shore, hydroelectric turbine, air turbine and linear electrical generator. Some of these designs incorporate parabolic reflectors as a means of increasing the wave energy at the point of capture. 3.0 Type of Wave Energy Converters Ocean waves represent a form of renewable energy created by wind currents passing over open water. Many devices are being developed for exploiting wave energy. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups (Harris Robert E. et al.): Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) Waves cause the water column to rise and fall, which alternately compresses and depressurize an air column. The energy is extracted from the resulting oscillating air flow by using a Wells turbine Overtopping Devices (OTD) Ocean waves are elevated into a reservoir above the sea level, which store the water. The energy is extracted by using the difference in water level between the reservoir and the sea by using low head turbines Wave Activated Bodies (WAB) Waves activate the oscillatory motions of body parts of a device relative to each other, or of one body part relative to a fixed reference. Primarily heave, pitch and roll motions can be identified as oscillating motions whereby the energy is extracted from the relative motion of the bodies or from the motion of one body relative to its fixed reference by using typically hydraulic systems to compress oil, which is then used to drive a generator. The wave activated bodies (WABs) can be further categorized in sub-groups describing the energy extraction by the principle motion of the floating body (heave, pitch and roll). A variety of technologies have been proposed to capture the energy from waves based on above extraction methods; Some of the technologies that have been the target of recent developmental efforts and are appropriate for the offshore applications being considered are terminators, attenuators and point absorbers (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Figure 1: Schematic drawings of WEC devices for operating principles and principal locations(Harris Robert E. et al.) The many different types of wave energy converters (WECs) can be classified in to various ways depending on their horizontal size and orientation. If the size is very small compared to the typical wavelength the WEC is called a point absorber. In contrast if the size is comparable to or larger than the typical wavelength, the WEC is known as line absorber, this can also be referred to as terminator or attenuator. A WEC is called terminator or attenuator if it is aligned along or normal to the prevailing direction of the wave crest respectively (John brook, ECOR). The relationship between the three main classifications Principal Location Operating Principle Directional Characteristic: These classifications are shown in Figure 2, presenting the possible operating principles for the location and the directional characteristics. At the shoreline the only feasible operating principles are oscillating water columns and overtopping devices, which are terminators. Figure shows that at near shore and offshore, point absorber or attenuator devices can only be WABs, whilst for terminator devices all three categories of the operating principles are possible. OWCs and OTDs are ‘static’ energy converters of the terminator kind. As a result their mooring has to be stiff, restraining modes of motions but allowing for adjustment towards a parallel wave approach and for tidal ranges. The station keeping requirements for the mooring of wave activated bodies can be either static or dynamic. Figure 2: Possible operating principles for the principal location and directional characteristic 3.1 Attenuators Attenuators are long multi-segment floating structures oriented parallel to the direction of the wave travel. The differing heights of waves along the length of the device causes flexing where the segments connect, and this flexing is connected to hydraulic pumps or other converters (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). 3.2 Point Absorbers Point absorbers have a small horizontal dimension compared with the vertical dimension and utilize the rise and fall of the wave height at a single point for WEC (Harris Robert E. et al.). It is relatively small compared to the wave length and is able to capture energy from a wave front greater than the physical dimension of the absorber (James, 2007). The efficiency of a terminator or attenuator device is linked to their principal axis being, according, parallel or orthogonal to the incoming wave crest. The point absorber does not have a principal wave direction and is able to capture energy from waves arriving from any direction. As a consequence the station keeping for the terminator and attenuator has to allow the unit to weathervane into the predominant wave direction, but this is not necessary for the point absorber (Harris Robert E. et al.). 3.3 Terminators A Terminator has its principal axis parallel to the incident wave crest and terminates the wave. These devices extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. The reflected and transmitted waves determine the efficiency of the device (Harris Robert E. et al.). These devices are typically installed onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). There are mainly two types in Terminator WEC. 3.3.1 Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) The oscillating water column (OWC) is a form of terminator in which water enters through a subsurface opening into a chamber with air trapped above it. The wave action causes the captured water column to move up and down like a piston to force the air through an opening connected to a turbine (U.S. Department of the Interior May 2006). The device consists essentially of a floating or (more usually) bottom-fixed structure, whose upper part forms an air chamber and whose immersed part is open to the action of the sea. The reciprocating flow of air displaced by the inside free surface motion drives an air turbine mounted on the top of the structure. 3.3.1.1 Efficiency of Oscillating Water Column (OWC) The efficiency of oscillating water column (OWC) wave energy devices are particularly affected by flow oscillations basically for two reasons. (1) Because of intrinsically unsteady (reciprocating) flow of air displaced by the oscillating water free surface. (2) Because of increasing the air flow rate, above a limit depending on, and approximately proportional to, the rotational speed of the turbine, is known to give rise to a rapid drop in the aerodynamic efficiency and in the power output of the turbine. A method which has been proposed to partially circumvent this problem consists in controlling the pitch of the turbine rotor blades in order to prevent the instantaneous angle of incidence of the relative flow from exceeding the critical value above which severe stalling occurs at the rotor blades (see Gato and FalcaËÅ"o, 1991). Although considered technically feasible (Salter, 1993) this has never been implemented at full scale owing to mechanical difficulties. Alternately, the flow rate through the turbine can be prevented from becoming excessive by equipping the device with air valves. Two different schemes can be envisaged, in the first one, the valves are mounted between the chamber and the atmosphere in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valves, on or near the roof of the air chamber structure) and are made to open (by active or passive control) in order to prevent the overpressure (or the under pressure) in the chamber to exceed a limit which is defined by the aerodynamic characteristics of the turbine at its instantaneous speed. In the second scheme a valve is mounted in series with the turbine in the duct connecting the chamber and the atmosphere. Excessive flow rate is prevented by partially closing the valve. In both schemes, the air flow through the turbine is controlled at the expense of energy dissipation at the valves. Theoretically the two methods, if properly implemented, are equivalent from the point of view of limiting the flow rate through the turbine. However, the resulting pressure changes in the chamber are different (reduction and increase in pressure oscillations in the first and second cases, respectively). Consequently the hydrodynamic process of energy extraction from the waves is differently modified by valve operation in the two control methods. The main purpose of this work is to analyse theoretically the performance of an OWC wave energy device when valves are used to limit the flow through the turbine. Both schemes are considered and compared: a valve (or a set of valves) mounted in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valve) or a valve mounted in the turbine duct. The hydrodynamic analysis is done in the time domain for regular as well as for irregular waves. The spring-like effect due to the compressibility of the air is taken into account and is discussed in some detail. Realistic characteristics are assumed for the turbine. Numerical results are presented for simple two-dimensional chamber geometry for whose hydrodynamic coefficients analytical expressions are known as functions of wave frequency. 3.3.2 Overtopping Devices (OTD) Overtopping devices have reservoirs that are filled by impinging waves to levels above the average surrounding ocean. The released reservoir water is used to drive hydro turbines or other conversion devices. Overtopping devices have been designed and tested for both onshore and floating offshore applications. It gathers the energy by waves overtopping into a raised reservoir, and extracting this by draining the water through low head turbines. OTD consists of three main elements: Two wave reflectors. Attached to the central platform these act to focus the incoming waves. The main platform. This is a floating reservoir with a doubly curved ramp facing the incoming waves. The waves overtop the ramp which has a variable crest freeboard 1 to 4 m and underneath the platform open chambers operate as an air cushion maintaining the level of the reservoir. Hydro turbines. A set of low head turbines converts the hydraulic head in the reservoir (Tedd James et al., 2005) 3.3.2.1 Overtopping theory The theory for modeling overtopping devices varies greatly from the traditional linear systems approach used by most other WECs. A linear systems approach may be used with overtopping devices. This considers the water oscillating up and down the ramp as the excited body, and the crest of the ramp as a highly non-linear power take off system. However due to the non-linearities it is too computationally demanding to model usefully. Therefore a more physical approach is taken. Figure 4 shows the schematic of flows for the Wave Dragon. Depending on the current wave state (HS, Tp) and the crest freeboard Rc(height of the ramp crest above mean water level, MWL) of the device, water will overtop into the reservoir Qovertopping. The power gathered by the reservoir is a product of this overtopping flow, the crest freeboard and gravity. If the reservoir is over filled when a large volume is deposited in the basin there will be loss from it Qspill. To minimize this, the reservoir level h must be kept below its maximum level hR. The useful hydraulic power converted by the turbines is the product of turbine flow Qturbine, the head across them, water density and gravity (Tedd James et al., 2005). In coastal engineering the average flow Q is converted into non dimensional form by dividing by the breadth of the device b, gravity g and the significant wave height HS: In the case of the floating OTD it has been seen that there is a dependency on the wave period. The dominant physical explanation for this is the effect of energy passing beneath the draft of the structure. Figure 6 Layout of OTD 3.3.2.2 Wave Reflector Wings One of the most distinctive aspects of the Overtopping WEC is the long slender wings mounted to the front corners of the reservoir platform. These are designed to reflect the oncoming waves towards the ramp. A wider section of wave is available to be exploited with only a moderate increase in capital cost. The overtopping volume in a wave is very dependent on the wave height; therefore by providing only a moderate increase in height, much more energy can overtop the ramp. In order to choose the correct lengths, angles, and position of these wings extensive computer modelling is used. Secondary bonuses of the presence of the wave reflector wings include: better weather-vaning performance to face the waves, lower peak mooring forces, and improved horizontal stability of the main platform. As the aft and rear mooring attachment points are separated further, the yaw of the platform is more stable. Therefore the device will not turn away from the predominant wave direction, and will also realign itself faster as when the wave direction changes (Tedd James et al., 2005). Lastly the reflectors wings act as stabilisers to the device. As they float under their own buoyancy they counteract any list of the platform. This is important as the more horizontal the platform is kept the less water is spilt and so the more efficient the device operation. 3.3.2.3 Low Head Turbines and Power Train Turbine operating conditions in a WEC are quite different from the ones in a normal hydro power plant. In the OTD, the turbine head range is typically between 1.0 and 4.0 m, which is on the lower bounds of existing water turbine experience. While there are only slow and relatively small variations of flow and head in a river hydro power plant, the strong stochastic variations of the wave overtopping call for a radically different mode of operation in the OTD. The head, being a function of the significant wave height, is varying in a range as large as 1:4, and the discharge has to be regulated within time intervals as short as ten seconds in order to achieve a good efficiency of the energy exploitation (Tedd James et al., 2005). On an unmanned offshore device, the environmental conditions are much rougher, and routine maintenance work is much more difficult to perform. Special criteria for the choice and construction of water turbines for the WEC have to be followed; it is advisable to aim for constructional simplicity rather than maximum peak efficiency. Figure 6 shows the application ranges of the known turbine types in a graph of head H vs. rotational speed nq. The specific speed nq is a turbine parameter characterizing the relative speed of a turbine, thus giving an indication of the turbines power density. Evidently, all turbine types except the Pelton and the cross flow type are to be found in a relatively narrow band running diagonally across the graph. Transgressing the left or lower border means that the turbine will run too slowly, thus being unnecessarily large and expensive. The right or upper border is defined by technological limits, namely material strength and the danger of cavitations erosion. The Pelton and the cross-flow turbine do not quite follow these rules, as they have a runner which is running in air and is only partially loaded with a free jet of water. Thus, they have a lower specific speed and lower power density. Despite its simplicity and robustness, the cross flow turbine is not very suitable for OTD applications (Tedd James et al., 2005). Figure 7 Head range of the common turbine types, Voith and Ossberger 3.3.2.4 Performance in Storms Survivability is essential, and Overtopping devices are naturally adapted to perform well in storm situations, where the wave will pass over and under the device with no potential end-stop problems. 3.3.2.5 Wave Prediction Performance of almost all wave energy converters can be improved with prediction of the incoming waves. The cost to implement would be low as the control hardware is typically in place, only the measuring system and improved control techniques need to be developed. To explain the concept behind the device a simple example can be used. If a measurement of some wavelengths ahead of the wave energy converter shows large waves passing, then at a given time later this energy will be incident on the device. The control of the device can then be altered quickly to extract this larger energy, e.g. by increasing hydraulic resistance to an oscillator’s motion allowing more energy to be captured within the stroke length, or by draining the reservoir of an overtopping device to allow for a large overtopping volume(Tedd James et al., 2005). The challenges are threefold; to implement a system for measuring the waves approaching the ramp, to accurately transform this into usable input for the control systems, and to construct new control strategies to make the best use of this. The standard approach for performing such deterministic sea-state prediction involves discrete frequency domain techniques. This is computationally intensive, as the two Fourier transforms must be made to convert from the time domain to the frequency domain and return to the time domain. 3.4 Energy Capture and Practical Limits The power captured from waves by the primary mechanical conversion (before secondary conversion to electrical power) can be related to the energy in the incoming waves over a certain width. Theoretical values have been established in some cases. For a heaving axi-symmetric body the maximum capture width is the inverse of the wave number. The capture width is often compared to the front width of the device. This width ratio can be larger than one for a point absorber with small dimensions compared to the wavelength. Viscous effects reduce efficiency. For an OWC, Wang et al. (2002) found that the capture width ratio may reach a value of 3 and above at an optimum wave period. For Pelamis, Retlzler et al. (2001) found a capture width up to 2 in regular waves and around one in random seas (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). A continuous or a semi discrete array of wave energy converters acting as an absorbing wall perpendicular to the wave direction is called a terminator and its capture width equals the width of the device and is not related to the length of the incident waves. As the wave conditions are stochastic, the tuning parameters of the energy converters are compromises between the optimum values at various sea conditions. The capture width must be established for each sea state. Fixed devices are subject to sea level variation according to tidal effects. This is critical for fixed oscillating water columns and fixed overtopping systems whose performances are dependent on the mean sea level. The intake of an OWC must be located at an optimised design level from the mean free surface. The height of an overtopping system is also optimised for sea states occurring at a given mean sea level. Therefore, sites with minimal tide are preferred. From this point of view floating devices are more suitable. The immersion of a floating device can also be tuned with respect to the actual sea state. For instance the Wave Dragon overtopping device is partially floating on air chambers and its draught can be modified (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). The performance of the overtopping device is sensitive to the distribution of the overtopping rate. The more variable the overtopping flow into the reservoir, the larger the capacity of the reservoir and turbines must be to achieve the same performance. 4.0 Mooring Requirements The two major requirements for a WEC mooring are to withstand the environmental and other loadings involved in keeping the device on station, and to be sufficiently cost effective so that the overall economics of the device remain viable. The following list shows the requirements that need to be considered for WEC moorings systems (Harris Robert E. et al.): The primary purpose of the mooring system is to maintain the floating structure on station within specified tolerances under normal operating load and extreme storm load conditions. The excursion of the device must not permit tension loads in the electrical transmission cable(s) and should allow for suitable specified clearance distances between devices in multiple installations. The mooring system must be sufficiently compliant to the environmental loading to reduce the forces acting on anchors, mooring lines and the device itself to a minimum; unless the stiffness of the mooring itself is an active element in the wave energy conversion principle used. All components must have adequate strength, fatigue life and durability for the operational lifetime, and marine growth and corrosion need to be considered. A degree of redundancy is highly desirable for individual devices, and essential for schemes which link several devices together. The system as a whole should be capable of lasting for 30 years or more, with replacement of particular components at no less than 5 years. The mooring must be sufficient to accommodate the tidal range at the installation location. The mooring system should allow the removal of single devices without affecting the mooring of adjacent devices. Removal of mooring lines for inspection and maintenance must be possible. The mooring must be sufficiently stiff to allow berthing for inspection and maintenance purposes. Contact between mooring lines must be avoided. The mooring should not adversely affect the efficiency of the device, and if it is part of an active control system it must also be designed dynamically as part of the overall WEC system. Revenues from WECs, in comparison to the offshore industry, are smaller and their economics more strongly linked to the location, installation costs and down time periods. The mooring system has an important impact on the economics and it is necessary to provide, at low installation cost, a reliable system that has little downtime and long intervals between maintenance. The suitability of design approaches from the offshore industry for WECs are ranked in Appendix I (Harris Robert E. et al.). 5.0 Environmental Considerations Conversion of wave energy to electrical or other usable forms of energy is generally anticipated to have limited environmental impacts. However, as with any emerging technology, the nature and extent of environmental considerations remain uncertain. The impacts that would potentially occur are also very site specific, depending on physical and ecological factors that vary considerably for potential ocean sites. As large-scale prototypes and commercial facilities are developed, these factors can be expected to be more precisely defined (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). The following environmental considerations require monitoring (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Visual appearance and noiseare device-specific, with considerable variability in visible freeboard height and noise generation above and below the water surface. Devices with OWCs and overtopping devices typically have the highest freeboard and are most visible. Offshore devices would require navigation hazard warning devices such as lights, sound signals, radar reflectors, and contrasting day marker painting. However, Coast Guard requirements only require that day markers be visible for 1 nautical mile (1.8 km), and thus offshore device markings would only be seen from shore on exceptionally clear days. The air being drawn in and expelled in OWC devices is likely to be the largest source of above-water noise. Some underwater noise would occur from devices with turbines, hydraulic pumps, and other moving parts. The frequency of the noise may also be a consideration in evaluating noise impacts. Reduction in wave height from wave energy converterscould be a consideration in some settings; however, the impact on wave characteristics would generally only be observed 1 to 2 km away from the WEC device in the direction of the wave travel. Thus there should not be a significant onshore impact if the devices were much more than this distance from the shore. None of the devices currently being developed would harvest a large portion of the wave energy, which would leave a relatively calm surface behind the devices. It is estimated that with current projections, a large wave energy facility with a maximum density of devices would cause the reduction in waves to be on the order of 10 to 15%, and this impact would rapidly dissipate within a few kilometers, but leave a slight lessening of waves in the overall vicinity. Little information is available on the impact on sediment transport or on biological communities from a reduction in wave height offshore. An isolated impact, such as reduced wave height for recreational surfers, could possibly result. Marine habitatcould be impacted positively or negatively depending on the nature of additional submerged surfaces, above-water platforms, and changes in the seafloor. Artificial above-water surfaces could provide habitat for seals and sea lions or nesting areas for birds. Underwater surfaces of WEC devices would provide substrates for various biological systems, which could be a positive or negative complement to existing natural habitats. With some WEC devices, it may be necessary to control the growth of marine organisms on some surfaces. Toxic releasesmay be of concern related to leaks or accidental spills of liquids used in systems with working hydraulic fluids. Any impacts could be minimized through the selection of nontoxic fluids and careful monitoring, with adequate spill response plans and secondary containment design features. Use of biocides to control growth of marine organisms may also be a source of toxic releases. Conflict with other sea space users, such as commercial shipping and fishing and recreational boating, can occur without the careful selection of sites for WEC devices. The impact can potentially be positive for recreational and commercial fisheries if the devices provide for additional biological habitats. Installation and Decommissioning: Disturbances from securing the devices to the ocean floor and installation of cables may have negative impacts on marine habitats. Potential decommissioning impacts are primarily related to disturbing marine habitats that have adapted to the presence of the wave energy structures. 6.0 Discussions A vast number of parameters influence (and interact with) the net power production from any WEC: Overtopping, determined by Free-board (adjustable in Wave Dragons) Actual wave height Physical dimension of the converter (ramps, reflectors etc. Outlet, determined by Size of reservoir Turbine design Turbine on/off strategy Mooring system, free or restricted orientation toward waves Size of the energy converter Wave climate Energy in wave front (kW/m) Distribution of wave heights Availability Theoretical availability; Reliability, maintainability, serviceab