How Has Moral Studies Influenced the Way We Look at Our Lives Essay Example

How Has Moral Studies Influenced the Way We Look at Our Lives Essay How it has affected our lives : The one thing that has separated humans from being the animals they are as stated in the evolution theory is that humans are civilized. To put it in layman’s terms, we are on a different level of social, cultural, and moral development and therefore considered to be more advanced. To be civilized, we have to learn to live together with the environment and ourselves while making sure that we know the differentiation of what is â€Å"good† and what is â€Å"bad†. We need knowledge and skills to be able to evaluate intentions, decisions, and actions between what is right and wrong. This is the essence of morality, the reference point from which the fundamental laws of human living is defined. Moral values uphold the right behavior and appropriate response to a given situation. For example, should a thief be caught stealing money from a shop, the offender will be handed over to the police rather than have him being beaten up by the shop owner. Another example would be the burning of forests to procur land for farming. Here, this action causes environmental and health issues. Financially speaking the land will generate money but morally will affect the health of the people affected by the pollution and displace wild animals from their habitat. Why the moral values are important : Moral values are the building blocks of our lives, the core of civilization where one good of a minority cannot over ride the greater good of a community. It does not condone individual acts either when it oppresses others’ rights. So what constitutes moral values? It includes honesty, justice, diligence, compassion, kindness, humility, forgiveness, generosity amongst many others. We will write a custom essay sample on How Has Moral Studies Influenced the Way We Look at Our Lives specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on How Has Moral Studies Influenced the Way We Look at Our Lives specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on How Has Moral Studies Influenced the Way We Look at Our Lives specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer These are also not just behaviours but attitudes as well. Being moral requires courage that can guide us through life’s obstacles. Anyone who has courage can bravely face the world. It makes us better people when we learn to care more for others than ourselves. Through time moral values become our character, our person. Understanding moral values : However, what are the measurements needed to differentiate between the rights and the wrongs? Different cultures have different moral systems. Take for example those in under developed countries where child slavery still exists. To the child owners, they are helping to provide money to the poor family who is selling off their child but to the rest of the world this practice is cruel. The child’s basic human rights are abused. This has been practiced for a very long time and has been accepted by that society, so what is right to them may not be so with others. How then can we know what constitutes morality in this case? Moral values stems from understanding the reasons and the need for it. Without understanding, our intellect can only shape our thinking and not our desire to apply. Morality and understanding are like a lever and a fulcrum as they can only function if they are both present. This combination of reason and morality is needed for conviction to take place within oneself. The basics of right, wrong, good and bad : Moral studies can also help us in solving moral conflicts in our daily lives. A moral conflict is a dispute that is concerned with the principles or rules of right conduct or the distinction between right and wrong. Someone’s moral values are related to their practice, thinking and language. Different people have different thoughts and practice. A person acts through what they their understand based upon their experience and upon what they think is valuable and important. The way each individual thinks shapes their self identity based on their understanding of facts and issues to help them cope with their problems. For instance, people sometimes differentiate rights and virtues. Each of these is associated with a particular form of society. People from the same cultural backgrounds have similar mindsets. Therefore, their values and behaviour are more or less the same. However, moral conflicts can occur when two parties have different values and beliefs. Moral values and beliefs of a religion are co-related. Teachings of almost any religion teach us to do good, to act good and to be a good human being. They teach us and give us the purpose of life. They teach us what is right and what is wrong. The system of religious beliefs sets parameters around us and our conscience will prick us when we are about to cross the line. Religion can act as a hedge of protection and keep us in check especially when in doubt. Most religious values are the same; to do good to others and to show love. This principle then is the cornerstone from where we develop our moral values. In situations where conflicts arise due to different sets of beliefs and emphasis, tolerance and understanding will always help. Different Sets of Moral Beliefs : All humans will have to know how to differentiate between right and wrong. This is the basis of our moral values, and this is what we are actually taught to differentiate when a Moral Studies class is on. All the 36 values that we have learnt in SPM and the A-Z’s in college moral studies have only one sole purpose, which is to help us set apart the good and the bad in humanity. For an instance, we can take a study from Joshua Greene, a Hazel Associate Professor. He likens the moral brain to a camera that comes with manufactured presets, such as â€Å"portrait† or â€Å"landscape,† along with a manual mode which requires photographers to make adjustments on their own. Emotional responses, which are influenced by humans’ biological makeup and social experiences, are like the presets: fast and efficient, but can also be careless and inflexible. Rationality is like manual mode: adaptable to all kinds of unique scenarios, but time-consuming and cumbersome. According to him, the trick is to know when to point and shoot and when to use the manual mode. To explain it simply, this is how our learned responses are split into the two types i. e. our emotional responses and our rationality. When is it right to show our emotions and when is it right to keep calm and think before a decision? Which situation allows us to do whatever we want or which situation requires us to go against our natural human instincts? This mindset covers everything from homosexuality to abortion. Thus, through this way of thought; we are influenced into processing the responses available for a situation. In moral studies we also learnt that it covers every area of our lives, for example, our working life. Honesty and being trustworthy will help us to have integrity especially when faced with temptations such as stealing data or even funds from our employers. Integrity will help push our career to a higher level as this trait is very valued in the professional life. Holding high moral values can cause others to look up to the person as he would be perceive to be controlled, unbiased and even wise. Others can feel confident relying on him for advice because he can also keep sensitive information private and confidential. It is also important to incorporate the moral value of forgiveness in our personal life. Forgiveness allows you to move past hurtful or damaging situations. It allows you to abandon feelings of anger or resentment against others or yourself and prevents you from falling into feelings of insecurity and self pity. Materialism vs Morality : What is materialism? In the general meaning, people who are the materialistic type are usually preoccupied with or on material things that can provide physical comforts. The characteristic of these people is the greed for more money and they aspire to be rich quickly even if it involves a lot of risks. Such as when they develop the sense of desire to live in very expensive and luxurious houses, wear trendy and popular clothes and jewellery, and drive attractive imported cars. This can lead to an extravagant life. Being greedy for more of wealth is the same as the desire for more power, and corruption might happen. Materialism can give out many negative feelings such as lust, selfishness, jealousy, rage and many more. This can makes people forget their moral values and fail to understand the differences between the rights and wrongs. The worst case is when they lose their faith in God as they cannot believe in anything which they cannot see or touch. The outcome is that they are likely to commit sin. All of these things can affect our modern society and economy of our country. But there is still a hope and a chance for these people to make some changes in their outlook and separate themselves from the material world. They may have less material things but they can be happy that they do not lose themselves and the support of their families when they allow themselves to learn from their mistakes. So, morality helps us to know our real identity. That way, we can prevent the influence of materialism from blocking our inner growth. Human characteristics : There are apparently 7 ways that humans are different from animals. Humans have speech, flexible hands, extraordinary brains, upright postures, wears clothes, have the ability to control fire and blush. The last four are actually related to morality in the sense that they are all part of learned responses. In other words, without moral studies, we will have only three ways to put ourselves apart from animals. Firstly, let’s take into account the importance of an upright posture. In the Victorian era, all men and omen are required to stand upright. Those who do not do so will be looked down upon by society and can even be charged in court. Then, we have clothing. This can be dated back even to prehistoric times when the first humans wore animal skins as protection against animal attacks. Now, clothing is considered the basis of fashion and also a basic part of morality where public nudity can get you charged with indecent behaviour in the current Malaysian court. After that, our abilities are also gauged in the eyes of others. We can use fire to help ourselves with many things or kill many with arson. Besides that, one’s blushing can hint to us what a person’s thought may be. Self discovery : Self-discovery is the series of events when a person tries to find out and understand how he feels about spiritual issues or priorities, rather than following the opinions of his friends, family or peer pressure. It is about finding oneself, the true inner self. Many of you might have watched the ‘Eat Pray Love’ movie which was released in 2010. That movie was also connected with the idea of a journey of self-discovery. The movie is akin to a pilgrimage in search of one’s spiritual significance . It portrays the search as something that is achievable if only one would put his determination to it. The end result would be an empowerment to live one’s life as one dictates it and not to fall into the pressures and complexities of society’s thinking. When a person is empowered in his outlook on life he gains power over his thoughts and actions and is able to find strength to push forward with his own beliefs even if there may be obstacles. As he becomes at peace with himself he becomes comfortable in living out his convictions. He then becomes the leader rather than the follower.

Juvenile Corrections Essays

Juvenile Corrections Essays Juvenile Corrections Essay Juvenile Corrections Essay Com II How does the media stereotype you? *Come as your favorite stereotype: By Ego Aviators. Stereotypes Japanese women as some people may think of them. It shows a Japanese girl with slanted eyes, white paint on her face and dressed in a robe. (Race and Culture) *Will Stereotype for food: By The Latino Comedy Project. Stereotypes Mexicans as people with out Jobs that will do any line of work to get by. It has four Mexicans In the back of a truck holding up a sign saying will stereotype for food. Race and Culture) *The Arabs are coming: By New York Arab comedy festival. Stereotypes that Arabs will always have a camel with them because they are from the desert. It shows a camel with sunglasses in Hollywood. ( Race and Culture) *Whos a Looter? : By Tania Rally. Stereotypes a young black male of stealing because of how he looks. Shows two pictures on of a young black male with bags and is stereotyped of stealing as in the second picture has a white male and white female and they Just found the things they are holding. Race and Culture) Gay Asian-American Male Seeking Home. : by Chon-suck Han. Stereotypes a gay Aslant male by say how Aslant all reading look Like theyre more feminine then other males. (Race, Gender, Culture, and Sexual orientation) *On Covers of Many Magazines, a full racial palette is still rare. : by David Carr. Stereotypes White women as being or important for people to see on a cover of a magazine. (Race and Culture) *Not Only Natalie is Missing. : by Anne-Mar ie OConnor. Stereotypes how white women are shown in the media over other races and genders. Tells use how people will listen more of a white girl missing over another kind of kidnapping. (Race, Culture, and Gender) *Skin Deep What polls of Minorities Mils. : BY David Boosts. Tells use that polls only show use Stereotypes that may be true for some of the people but not all of them. Also Monitor use Tanat ten polls will always n (Race and Culture) more data to Increase Its result. *Advertising Sets Double Standard for the Male Gender. : By William Sea. Stereotype males of being men and they should act a certain way to be a man. It tells use about a commercial that shows a man that is successful being macho, watching sports, and drinking beer and tells use that thats how we need to be to be successful. (Gender and Culture) *Graphic Artist Carefully Assigns Ethnicities to Anthropomorphic Recyclables. : Appeared in august 2003 in the Onion. Tells use of how the artist is trying to get every different tip of race and sexual orientation as recyclable objects. Such as a black man as a trash can and a Mexican as a can. (Race, Gender, Sexual orientation,

Research paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Research Paper Example Street literature is a genre involving an insightful look into the ghetto life (Morris et al. 20). The stories of â€Å"Midnight: A Gangster Love Story,† â€Å"Midnight and the Meaning of Love,† and â€Å"The Coldest Winter Ever† all fall within this gangsta realism that makes readers experience the high price of ghetto life through the characters. Street literature typically involves people from the African-American descent, and the main characters are usually mid-teens to mid-20s in age. They are usually depicted as people who go through extraordinary struggles in life, and they survive through obstacles such as violence, racism, and severe poverty. The whole story is filled with ghetto language, and this is more formally known as the African American Vernacular English (AAVE). The setting is usually in urban areas, and hip hop culture is the dominant scenario. Themes usually revolve around prostitution, premarital sex, illegal sex, crime, drugs, abortion, viol ence, and other illegal activities. The three novels mentioned above circle around such themes, and they are set within the urban hip hop milieu. However, despite such seemingly negative backdrop, these stories could serve as cautionary tales, and one does not need to go through the same experiences to learn what the characters learn in their life's journeys. The morals involved in the narratives are usually insightful in terms of understanding the, and learning from, the high price of ghetto life (Wright 42-45). â€Å"Midnight: A Gangster Love Story† is authored by Sister Souljah. It discusses the life of Midnight, a Muslim black immigrant from Sudan. In the opening lines of the book, Midnight is described as a tall guy with a dominating personality. He is pure black, and even his eyes are jet black. He is also described as lean and muscular, and females want to always be near him. Midnight is such a strong character because he never feels intimidated or insecure. Midnight i s a fierce fighter inside and out. Being a fighter is one common characteristic among the main characters in the three street literature novels (Brooks and McNair 129-132). Midnight's young life goes through a process of being sheltered and protected under his father's care, to being vulnerable and open to the dangers of a foreign neighborhood. His character is developed by his experiences, and he bravely surpasses obstacles throughout his teenage years. First, due to hardship, he becomes home schooled, and he escorts his mother daily to and from her sweat shop job. Second, to develop himself, he learns martial arts, and he also becomes a talented basketball player. Third, to get over poverty, he begins to earn his own money through a fish market job, and he helps save up to purchase a bigger house for his family in a less dangerous neighborhood. He gets over hindrances towards his family progress and personal development, that is why even language barrier does not deter him from wi nning the heart of a Japanese beauty named Akemi. His character is shown even further development as he adheres to his strict Muslim principles while courting Akemi. It can therefore be said that surviving one hardship after another makes Midnight who he is in the novel, and makes him a striking protagonist in this street literature (A Gangster). As a further backgrounder, Midnight is a boy who flees Africa at

Spirituality of Miccosukee Indian tribe Research Paper - 1

Spirituality of Miccosukee Indian tribe - Research Paper Example These spirit animals are often seen in a vision quest that each Native American do when they are young. This vision quest is a time for fasting and prayer and the youth hope to see their totem animal that also becomes their guardian (Gold, 2007). The Florida Seminoles and the Miccosukee believe in a Great Spirit or the Breath Maker who is in charge of making and maintaining life (â€Å"Religion of..†, n.d.). The meaning of life is very important to the Miccosukee because they acknowledge that everything is a part of their environment. All life is important. In the old days, when they hunted, they asked the spirit of the animal that was being killed, for forgiveness (â€Å"Religion of† , n.d.). The Miccosukee would also pray to a spirit of a tree before cutting down the tree. The Miccosukee may state that their strength comes from their religion and the fact that they have not adopted the Western ways. Because they are unique in keeping their customs and history, they would also see their matrilineal foundation as being important to their strength. For Native Americans, everything is spiritual and everything has a presence anywhere in the earth (Johnson, 2007). The sweat lodges and shamans are very important to Native Americans and healthcare. Shamans often help with health issues in the tribe because they understand how to interpret dreams and oversee many rituals that take place within the tribe (Johnson, 2007). The sweat lodge is one of the ways that Native Americans are able to keep balanced with the spirit world and with the creator (Garrett, et al., 2011). For Native Americans, the concept of balance means that they will have balance in mind, body, and spirit â€Å"with the natural environment† (Garrett et al., 2011, p. 318). On the spiritual level, the sweat lodge is also done for transformation and renewal of the spirit. In contrast to the way Westerners believe, the concept of transformation traditionally will be done in the presence of family and

Leveraging IT for Business Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Leveraging IT for Business - Assignment Example The benefits of offshoring are numerous to the company that engages in it. These include the reduction of the cost of doing business. Businesses have been able to reduce costs especially on the salaries that it pays out as well as other benefits. This is of benefit to the organization as it enables the organization to continue to function without unnecessary expense added to it (Click and Duening 2005). This is because most of the outsourcing destinations like China, India and other countries offer cheaper labour to these companies that outsource to them. Another benefit of outsourcing is the competitive advantage that it gives to those companies that use it. This is gained both in the local as well as in the international scene. This is due to the lower cost of business operations and the proximity to the available market for the finished goods. On the other hand, the difficulties of outsourcing a business are also present and must be put into consideration. These include the propor tionality of the projects availed and the provider of the BPO to fulfil the obligations. As the size of the provider goes up, so is the risk. At the same time, there is the matter of trust between the provider and recipient. The people or companies that are the recipients of the services that are being outsourced may be unknown. This means that it is a testing venture when a company, for example, far away, Australia decides to entrust its business to a little-known group like in India. The end result may be a poor show of the BPO which may be a great threat to the survival of the company. Another challenge to outsourcing is that it has the capacity to cause brain drain. According to unions within Australia, the outsourcing has driven a number of nationals from Australia to other countries in search of better terms of employment (Switzer 2006). This is because when companies outsource, they reduce the number of local jobs that they have. This is nature of unemployment that drives the job seekers elsewhere to try and survive. Outsourcings will, therefore, cost the country a lot of its highly productive labour.  

Terminator Wave Energy Devices

Terminator Wave Energy Devices 1.0 Executive Summary The offshore ocean wave energy resource, as a derivative form of solar energy, has considerable potential for making a significant contribution to the alternative usable energy supply.Wave power devices are generally categorized by the method used to capture the energy of the waves. They can also be categorized by location and power take-off system. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups; (1) Oscillating water Column (OWC) (2) Overtopping Devices (OTD) (3) Wave Activated Bodies (WAB); Locations are shoreline, near shore and offshore. This report discusses about Terminator wave energy devices which extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. These devices are typically onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. 2.0 Introduction Traditional sources of energy such as oil, gas, and coal are non-renewable. They also create pollution by releasing huge quantities of carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere. In contrast, waves are a renewable source of energy that doesnt cause pollution. The energy from waves alone could supply the worlds electricity needs. The total power of waves breaking on the worlds coastlines is estimated at 2 to 3 million megawatts. In some locations, the wave energy density can average 65 megawatts per mile of coastline. The problem is how to harness wave energy efficiently and with minimal environmental, social, and economic impacts. Ocean waves are caused by the wind as it blows across the open expanse of water, the gravitational pull from the sun and moon, and changes in atmospheric pressure, earthquakes etc. Waves created by the wind are the most common waves and the waves relevant for most wave energy technology. Wave energy conversion takes advantage of the ocean waves caused primarily by the interaction of winds with the ocean surface. Wave energy is an irregular oscillating low-frequency energy source. They are a powerful source of energy, but are difficult to harness and convert into electricity in large quantities. The energy needs to be converted to a 60 or 50 Hertz frequency before it can be added to the electric utility grid. Part of the solar energy received by our planet is converted to wind energy through the differential heating of the earth. In turn part of the wind energy is transferred to the water surface, thereby forming waves. While the average solar energy depends on factors such as local climate and latitude, the amount of energy transferred to the waves and hence their resulting size depends on the wind speed, the duration of the winds and the duration over which it blows. The most energetic waves on earth happen to be between 30 degrees to 60 degrees latitude, in general the waves generated are stronger on the southern parts of the countries (John brook, ECOR). Wave power devices extract energy directly from the surface motion of ocean waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface. Wave power varies considerably in different parts of the world, and wave energy cant be harnessed effectively everywhere. It has been estimated that if less than 0.1% of the renewable energy available within the oceans could be converted into electricity, it would satisfy the present world demand for energy more than five times over. A variety of technologies are available to capture the energy from waves. Wave technologies have been designed to be installed in near shore, offshore, and far offshore locations. Offshore systems are situated in deep water, typically of more than 40 meters (131 feet). Types of power take-off include: hydraulic ram, elastomeric hose pump, pump-to-shore, hydroelectric turbine, air turbine and linear electrical generator. Some of these designs incorporate parabolic reflectors as a means of increasing the wave energy at the point of capture. 3.0 Type of Wave Energy Converters Ocean waves represent a form of renewable energy created by wind currents passing over open water. Many devices are being developed for exploiting wave energy. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups (Harris Robert E. et al.): Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) Waves cause the water column to rise and fall, which alternately compresses and depressurize an air column. The energy is extracted from the resulting oscillating air flow by using a Wells turbine Overtopping Devices (OTD) Ocean waves are elevated into a reservoir above the sea level, which store the water. The energy is extracted by using the difference in water level between the reservoir and the sea by using low head turbines Wave Activated Bodies (WAB) Waves activate the oscillatory motions of body parts of a device relative to each other, or of one body part relative to a fixed reference. Primarily heave, pitch and roll motions can be identified as oscillating motions whereby the energy is extracted from the relative motion of the bodies or from the motion of one body relative to its fixed reference by using typically hydraulic systems to compress oil, which is then used to drive a generator. The wave activated bodies (WABs) can be further categorized in sub-groups describing the energy extraction by the principle motion of the floating body (heave, pitch and roll). A variety of technologies have been proposed to capture the energy from waves based on above extraction methods; Some of the technologies that have been the target of recent developmental efforts and are appropriate for the offshore applications being considered are terminators, attenuators and point absorbers (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Figure 1: Schematic drawings of WEC devices for operating principles and principal locations(Harris Robert E. et al.) The many different types of wave energy converters (WECs) can be classified in to various ways depending on their horizontal size and orientation. If the size is very small compared to the typical wavelength the WEC is called a point absorber. In contrast if the size is comparable to or larger than the typical wavelength, the WEC is known as line absorber, this can also be referred to as terminator or attenuator. A WEC is called terminator or attenuator if it is aligned along or normal to the prevailing direction of the wave crest respectively (John brook, ECOR). The relationship between the three main classifications Principal Location Operating Principle Directional Characteristic: These classifications are shown in Figure 2, presenting the possible operating principles for the location and the directional characteristics. At the shoreline the only feasible operating principles are oscillating water columns and overtopping devices, which are terminators. Figure shows that at near shore and offshore, point absorber or attenuator devices can only be WABs, whilst for terminator devices all three categories of the operating principles are possible. OWCs and OTDs are ‘static’ energy converters of the terminator kind. As a result their mooring has to be stiff, restraining modes of motions but allowing for adjustment towards a parallel wave approach and for tidal ranges. The station keeping requirements for the mooring of wave activated bodies can be either static or dynamic. Figure 2: Possible operating principles for the principal location and directional characteristic 3.1 Attenuators Attenuators are long multi-segment floating structures oriented parallel to the direction of the wave travel. The differing heights of waves along the length of the device causes flexing where the segments connect, and this flexing is connected to hydraulic pumps or other converters (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). 3.2 Point Absorbers Point absorbers have a small horizontal dimension compared with the vertical dimension and utilize the rise and fall of the wave height at a single point for WEC (Harris Robert E. et al.). It is relatively small compared to the wave length and is able to capture energy from a wave front greater than the physical dimension of the absorber (James, 2007). The efficiency of a terminator or attenuator device is linked to their principal axis being, according, parallel or orthogonal to the incoming wave crest. The point absorber does not have a principal wave direction and is able to capture energy from waves arriving from any direction. As a consequence the station keeping for the terminator and attenuator has to allow the unit to weathervane into the predominant wave direction, but this is not necessary for the point absorber (Harris Robert E. et al.). 3.3 Terminators A Terminator has its principal axis parallel to the incident wave crest and terminates the wave. These devices extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. The reflected and transmitted waves determine the efficiency of the device (Harris Robert E. et al.). These devices are typically installed onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). There are mainly two types in Terminator WEC. 3.3.1 Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) The oscillating water column (OWC) is a form of terminator in which water enters through a subsurface opening into a chamber with air trapped above it. The wave action causes the captured water column to move up and down like a piston to force the air through an opening connected to a turbine (U.S. Department of the Interior May 2006). The device consists essentially of a floating or (more usually) bottom-fixed structure, whose upper part forms an air chamber and whose immersed part is open to the action of the sea. The reciprocating flow of air displaced by the inside free surface motion drives an air turbine mounted on the top of the structure. 3.3.1.1 Efficiency of Oscillating Water Column (OWC) The efficiency of oscillating water column (OWC) wave energy devices are particularly affected by flow oscillations basically for two reasons. (1) Because of intrinsically unsteady (reciprocating) flow of air displaced by the oscillating water free surface. (2) Because of increasing the air flow rate, above a limit depending on, and approximately proportional to, the rotational speed of the turbine, is known to give rise to a rapid drop in the aerodynamic efficiency and in the power output of the turbine. A method which has been proposed to partially circumvent this problem consists in controlling the pitch of the turbine rotor blades in order to prevent the instantaneous angle of incidence of the relative flow from exceeding the critical value above which severe stalling occurs at the rotor blades (see Gato and FalcaËÅ"o, 1991). Although considered technically feasible (Salter, 1993) this has never been implemented at full scale owing to mechanical difficulties. Alternately, the flow rate through the turbine can be prevented from becoming excessive by equipping the device with air valves. Two different schemes can be envisaged, in the first one, the valves are mounted between the chamber and the atmosphere in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valves, on or near the roof of the air chamber structure) and are made to open (by active or passive control) in order to prevent the overpressure (or the under pressure) in the chamber to exceed a limit which is defined by the aerodynamic characteristics of the turbine at its instantaneous speed. In the second scheme a valve is mounted in series with the turbine in the duct connecting the chamber and the atmosphere. Excessive flow rate is prevented by partially closing the valve. In both schemes, the air flow through the turbine is controlled at the expense of energy dissipation at the valves. Theoretically the two methods, if properly implemented, are equivalent from the point of view of limiting the flow rate through the turbine. However, the resulting pressure changes in the chamber are different (reduction and increase in pressure oscillations in the first and second cases, respectively). Consequently the hydrodynamic process of energy extraction from the waves is differently modified by valve operation in the two control methods. The main purpose of this work is to analyse theoretically the performance of an OWC wave energy device when valves are used to limit the flow through the turbine. Both schemes are considered and compared: a valve (or a set of valves) mounted in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valve) or a valve mounted in the turbine duct. The hydrodynamic analysis is done in the time domain for regular as well as for irregular waves. The spring-like effect due to the compressibility of the air is taken into account and is discussed in some detail. Realistic characteristics are assumed for the turbine. Numerical results are presented for simple two-dimensional chamber geometry for whose hydrodynamic coefficients analytical expressions are known as functions of wave frequency. 3.3.2 Overtopping Devices (OTD) Overtopping devices have reservoirs that are filled by impinging waves to levels above the average surrounding ocean. The released reservoir water is used to drive hydro turbines or other conversion devices. Overtopping devices have been designed and tested for both onshore and floating offshore applications. It gathers the energy by waves overtopping into a raised reservoir, and extracting this by draining the water through low head turbines. OTD consists of three main elements: Two wave reflectors. Attached to the central platform these act to focus the incoming waves. The main platform. This is a floating reservoir with a doubly curved ramp facing the incoming waves. The waves overtop the ramp which has a variable crest freeboard 1 to 4 m and underneath the platform open chambers operate as an air cushion maintaining the level of the reservoir. Hydro turbines. A set of low head turbines converts the hydraulic head in the reservoir (Tedd James et al., 2005) 3.3.2.1 Overtopping theory The theory for modeling overtopping devices varies greatly from the traditional linear systems approach used by most other WECs. A linear systems approach may be used with overtopping devices. This considers the water oscillating up and down the ramp as the excited body, and the crest of the ramp as a highly non-linear power take off system. However due to the non-linearities it is too computationally demanding to model usefully. Therefore a more physical approach is taken. Figure 4 shows the schematic of flows for the Wave Dragon. Depending on the current wave state (HS, Tp) and the crest freeboard Rc(height of the ramp crest above mean water level, MWL) of the device, water will overtop into the reservoir Qovertopping. The power gathered by the reservoir is a product of this overtopping flow, the crest freeboard and gravity. If the reservoir is over filled when a large volume is deposited in the basin there will be loss from it Qspill. To minimize this, the reservoir level h must be kept below its maximum level hR. The useful hydraulic power converted by the turbines is the product of turbine flow Qturbine, the head across them, water density and gravity (Tedd James et al., 2005). In coastal engineering the average flow Q is converted into non dimensional form by dividing by the breadth of the device b, gravity g and the significant wave height HS: In the case of the floating OTD it has been seen that there is a dependency on the wave period. The dominant physical explanation for this is the effect of energy passing beneath the draft of the structure. Figure 6 Layout of OTD 3.3.2.2 Wave Reflector Wings One of the most distinctive aspects of the Overtopping WEC is the long slender wings mounted to the front corners of the reservoir platform. These are designed to reflect the oncoming waves towards the ramp. A wider section of wave is available to be exploited with only a moderate increase in capital cost. The overtopping volume in a wave is very dependent on the wave height; therefore by providing only a moderate increase in height, much more energy can overtop the ramp. In order to choose the correct lengths, angles, and position of these wings extensive computer modelling is used. Secondary bonuses of the presence of the wave reflector wings include: better weather-vaning performance to face the waves, lower peak mooring forces, and improved horizontal stability of the main platform. As the aft and rear mooring attachment points are separated further, the yaw of the platform is more stable. Therefore the device will not turn away from the predominant wave direction, and will also realign itself faster as when the wave direction changes (Tedd James et al., 2005). Lastly the reflectors wings act as stabilisers to the device. As they float under their own buoyancy they counteract any list of the platform. This is important as the more horizontal the platform is kept the less water is spilt and so the more efficient the device operation. 3.3.2.3 Low Head Turbines and Power Train Turbine operating conditions in a WEC are quite different from the ones in a normal hydro power plant. In the OTD, the turbine head range is typically between 1.0 and 4.0 m, which is on the lower bounds of existing water turbine experience. While there are only slow and relatively small variations of flow and head in a river hydro power plant, the strong stochastic variations of the wave overtopping call for a radically different mode of operation in the OTD. The head, being a function of the significant wave height, is varying in a range as large as 1:4, and the discharge has to be regulated within time intervals as short as ten seconds in order to achieve a good efficiency of the energy exploitation (Tedd James et al., 2005). On an unmanned offshore device, the environmental conditions are much rougher, and routine maintenance work is much more difficult to perform. Special criteria for the choice and construction of water turbines for the WEC have to be followed; it is advisable to aim for constructional simplicity rather than maximum peak efficiency. Figure 6 shows the application ranges of the known turbine types in a graph of head H vs. rotational speed nq. The specific speed nq is a turbine parameter characterizing the relative speed of a turbine, thus giving an indication of the turbines power density. Evidently, all turbine types except the Pelton and the cross flow type are to be found in a relatively narrow band running diagonally across the graph. Transgressing the left or lower border means that the turbine will run too slowly, thus being unnecessarily large and expensive. The right or upper border is defined by technological limits, namely material strength and the danger of cavitations erosion. The Pelton and the cross-flow turbine do not quite follow these rules, as they have a runner which is running in air and is only partially loaded with a free jet of water. Thus, they have a lower specific speed and lower power density. Despite its simplicity and robustness, the cross flow turbine is not very suitable for OTD applications (Tedd James et al., 2005). Figure 7 Head range of the common turbine types, Voith and Ossberger 3.3.2.4 Performance in Storms Survivability is essential, and Overtopping devices are naturally adapted to perform well in storm situations, where the wave will pass over and under the device with no potential end-stop problems. 3.3.2.5 Wave Prediction Performance of almost all wave energy converters can be improved with prediction of the incoming waves. The cost to implement would be low as the control hardware is typically in place, only the measuring system and improved control techniques need to be developed. To explain the concept behind the device a simple example can be used. If a measurement of some wavelengths ahead of the wave energy converter shows large waves passing, then at a given time later this energy will be incident on the device. The control of the device can then be altered quickly to extract this larger energy, e.g. by increasing hydraulic resistance to an oscillator’s motion allowing more energy to be captured within the stroke length, or by draining the reservoir of an overtopping device to allow for a large overtopping volume(Tedd James et al., 2005). The challenges are threefold; to implement a system for measuring the waves approaching the ramp, to accurately transform this into usable input for the control systems, and to construct new control strategies to make the best use of this. The standard approach for performing such deterministic sea-state prediction involves discrete frequency domain techniques. This is computationally intensive, as the two Fourier transforms must be made to convert from the time domain to the frequency domain and return to the time domain. 3.4 Energy Capture and Practical Limits The power captured from waves by the primary mechanical conversion (before secondary conversion to electrical power) can be related to the energy in the incoming waves over a certain width. Theoretical values have been established in some cases. For a heaving axi-symmetric body the maximum capture width is the inverse of the wave number. The capture width is often compared to the front width of the device. This width ratio can be larger than one for a point absorber with small dimensions compared to the wavelength. Viscous effects reduce efficiency. For an OWC, Wang et al. (2002) found that the capture width ratio may reach a value of 3 and above at an optimum wave period. For Pelamis, Retlzler et al. (2001) found a capture width up to 2 in regular waves and around one in random seas (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). A continuous or a semi discrete array of wave energy converters acting as an absorbing wall perpendicular to the wave direction is called a terminator and its capture width equals the width of the device and is not related to the length of the incident waves. As the wave conditions are stochastic, the tuning parameters of the energy converters are compromises between the optimum values at various sea conditions. The capture width must be established for each sea state. Fixed devices are subject to sea level variation according to tidal effects. This is critical for fixed oscillating water columns and fixed overtopping systems whose performances are dependent on the mean sea level. The intake of an OWC must be located at an optimised design level from the mean free surface. The height of an overtopping system is also optimised for sea states occurring at a given mean sea level. Therefore, sites with minimal tide are preferred. From this point of view floating devices are more suitable. The immersion of a floating device can also be tuned with respect to the actual sea state. For instance the Wave Dragon overtopping device is partially floating on air chambers and its draught can be modified (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). The performance of the overtopping device is sensitive to the distribution of the overtopping rate. The more variable the overtopping flow into the reservoir, the larger the capacity of the reservoir and turbines must be to achieve the same performance. 4.0 Mooring Requirements The two major requirements for a WEC mooring are to withstand the environmental and other loadings involved in keeping the device on station, and to be sufficiently cost effective so that the overall economics of the device remain viable. The following list shows the requirements that need to be considered for WEC moorings systems (Harris Robert E. et al.): The primary purpose of the mooring system is to maintain the floating structure on station within specified tolerances under normal operating load and extreme storm load conditions. The excursion of the device must not permit tension loads in the electrical transmission cable(s) and should allow for suitable specified clearance distances between devices in multiple installations. The mooring system must be sufficiently compliant to the environmental loading to reduce the forces acting on anchors, mooring lines and the device itself to a minimum; unless the stiffness of the mooring itself is an active element in the wave energy conversion principle used. All components must have adequate strength, fatigue life and durability for the operational lifetime, and marine growth and corrosion need to be considered. A degree of redundancy is highly desirable for individual devices, and essential for schemes which link several devices together. The system as a whole should be capable of lasting for 30 years or more, with replacement of particular components at no less than 5 years. The mooring must be sufficient to accommodate the tidal range at the installation location. The mooring system should allow the removal of single devices without affecting the mooring of adjacent devices. Removal of mooring lines for inspection and maintenance must be possible. The mooring must be sufficiently stiff to allow berthing for inspection and maintenance purposes. Contact between mooring lines must be avoided. The mooring should not adversely affect the efficiency of the device, and if it is part of an active control system it must also be designed dynamically as part of the overall WEC system. Revenues from WECs, in comparison to the offshore industry, are smaller and their economics more strongly linked to the location, installation costs and down time periods. The mooring system has an important impact on the economics and it is necessary to provide, at low installation cost, a reliable system that has little downtime and long intervals between maintenance. The suitability of design approaches from the offshore industry for WECs are ranked in Appendix I (Harris Robert E. et al.). 5.0 Environmental Considerations Conversion of wave energy to electrical or other usable forms of energy is generally anticipated to have limited environmental impacts. However, as with any emerging technology, the nature and extent of environmental considerations remain uncertain. The impacts that would potentially occur are also very site specific, depending on physical and ecological factors that vary considerably for potential ocean sites. As large-scale prototypes and commercial facilities are developed, these factors can be expected to be more precisely defined (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). The following environmental considerations require monitoring (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Visual appearance and noiseare device-specific, with considerable variability in visible freeboard height and noise generation above and below the water surface. Devices with OWCs and overtopping devices typically have the highest freeboard and are most visible. Offshore devices would require navigation hazard warning devices such as lights, sound signals, radar reflectors, and contrasting day marker painting. However, Coast Guard requirements only require that day markers be visible for 1 nautical mile (1.8 km), and thus offshore device markings would only be seen from shore on exceptionally clear days. The air being drawn in and expelled in OWC devices is likely to be the largest source of above-water noise. Some underwater noise would occur from devices with turbines, hydraulic pumps, and other moving parts. The frequency of the noise may also be a consideration in evaluating noise impacts. Reduction in wave height from wave energy converterscould be a consideration in some settings; however, the impact on wave characteristics would generally only be observed 1 to 2 km away from the WEC device in the direction of the wave travel. Thus there should not be a significant onshore impact if the devices were much more than this distance from the shore. None of the devices currently being developed would harvest a large portion of the wave energy, which would leave a relatively calm surface behind the devices. It is estimated that with current projections, a large wave energy facility with a maximum density of devices would cause the reduction in waves to be on the order of 10 to 15%, and this impact would rapidly dissipate within a few kilometers, but leave a slight lessening of waves in the overall vicinity. Little information is available on the impact on sediment transport or on biological communities from a reduction in wave height offshore. An isolated impact, such as reduced wave height for recreational surfers, could possibly result. Marine habitatcould be impacted positively or negatively depending on the nature of additional submerged surfaces, above-water platforms, and changes in the seafloor. Artificial above-water surfaces could provide habitat for seals and sea lions or nesting areas for birds. Underwater surfaces of WEC devices would provide substrates for various biological systems, which could be a positive or negative complement to existing natural habitats. With some WEC devices, it may be necessary to control the growth of marine organisms on some surfaces. Toxic releasesmay be of concern related to leaks or accidental spills of liquids used in systems with working hydraulic fluids. Any impacts could be minimized through the selection of nontoxic fluids and careful monitoring, with adequate spill response plans and secondary containment design features. Use of biocides to control growth of marine organisms may also be a source of toxic releases. Conflict with other sea space users, such as commercial shipping and fishing and recreational boating, can occur without the careful selection of sites for WEC devices. The impact can potentially be positive for recreational and commercial fisheries if the devices provide for additional biological habitats. Installation and Decommissioning: Disturbances from securing the devices to the ocean floor and installation of cables may have negative impacts on marine habitats. Potential decommissioning impacts are primarily related to disturbing marine habitats that have adapted to the presence of the wave energy structures. 6.0 Discussions A vast number of parameters influence (and interact with) the net power production from any WEC: Overtopping, determined by Free-board (adjustable in Wave Dragons) Actual wave height Physical dimension of the converter (ramps, reflectors etc. Outlet, determined by Size of reservoir Turbine design Turbine on/off strategy Mooring system, free or restricted orientation toward waves Size of the energy converter Wave climate Energy in wave front (kW/m) Distribution of wave heights Availability Theoretical availability; Reliability, maintainability, serviceab Terminator Wave Energy Devices Terminator Wave Energy Devices 1.0 Executive Summary The offshore ocean wave energy resource, as a derivative form of solar energy, has considerable potential for making a significant contribution to the alternative usable energy supply.Wave power devices are generally categorized by the method used to capture the energy of the waves. They can also be categorized by location and power take-off system. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups; (1) Oscillating water Column (OWC) (2) Overtopping Devices (OTD) (3) Wave Activated Bodies (WAB); Locations are shoreline, near shore and offshore. This report discusses about Terminator wave energy devices which extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. These devices are typically onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. 2.0 Introduction Traditional sources of energy such as oil, gas, and coal are non-renewable. They also create pollution by releasing huge quantities of carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere. In contrast, waves are a renewable source of energy that doesnt cause pollution. The energy from waves alone could supply the worlds electricity needs. The total power of waves breaking on the worlds coastlines is estimated at 2 to 3 million megawatts. In some locations, the wave energy density can average 65 megawatts per mile of coastline. The problem is how to harness wave energy efficiently and with minimal environmental, social, and economic impacts. Ocean waves are caused by the wind as it blows across the open expanse of water, the gravitational pull from the sun and moon, and changes in atmospheric pressure, earthquakes etc. Waves created by the wind are the most common waves and the waves relevant for most wave energy technology. Wave energy conversion takes advantage of the ocean waves caused primarily by the interaction of winds with the ocean surface. Wave energy is an irregular oscillating low-frequency energy source. They are a powerful source of energy, but are difficult to harness and convert into electricity in large quantities. The energy needs to be converted to a 60 or 50 Hertz frequency before it can be added to the electric utility grid. Part of the solar energy received by our planet is converted to wind energy through the differential heating of the earth. In turn part of the wind energy is transferred to the water surface, thereby forming waves. While the average solar energy depends on factors such as local climate and latitude, the amount of energy transferred to the waves and hence their resulting size depends on the wind speed, the duration of the winds and the duration over which it blows. The most energetic waves on earth happen to be between 30 degrees to 60 degrees latitude, in general the waves generated are stronger on the southern parts of the countries (John brook, ECOR). Wave power devices extract energy directly from the surface motion of ocean waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface. Wave power varies considerably in different parts of the world, and wave energy cant be harnessed effectively everywhere. It has been estimated that if less than 0.1% of the renewable energy available within the oceans could be converted into electricity, it would satisfy the present world demand for energy more than five times over. A variety of technologies are available to capture the energy from waves. Wave technologies have been designed to be installed in near shore, offshore, and far offshore locations. Offshore systems are situated in deep water, typically of more than 40 meters (131 feet). Types of power take-off include: hydraulic ram, elastomeric hose pump, pump-to-shore, hydroelectric turbine, air turbine and linear electrical generator. Some of these designs incorporate parabolic reflectors as a means of increasing the wave energy at the point of capture. 3.0 Type of Wave Energy Converters Ocean waves represent a form of renewable energy created by wind currents passing over open water. Many devices are being developed for exploiting wave energy. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups (Harris Robert E. et al.): Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) Waves cause the water column to rise and fall, which alternately compresses and depressurize an air column. The energy is extracted from the resulting oscillating air flow by using a Wells turbine Overtopping Devices (OTD) Ocean waves are elevated into a reservoir above the sea level, which store the water. The energy is extracted by using the difference in water level between the reservoir and the sea by using low head turbines Wave Activated Bodies (WAB) Waves activate the oscillatory motions of body parts of a device relative to each other, or of one body part relative to a fixed reference. Primarily heave, pitch and roll motions can be identified as oscillating motions whereby the energy is extracted from the relative motion of the bodies or from the motion of one body relative to its fixed reference by using typically hydraulic systems to compress oil, which is then used to drive a generator. The wave activated bodies (WABs) can be further categorized in sub-groups describing the energy extraction by the principle motion of the floating body (heave, pitch and roll). A variety of technologies have been proposed to capture the energy from waves based on above extraction methods; Some of the technologies that have been the target of recent developmental efforts and are appropriate for the offshore applications being considered are terminators, attenuators and point absorbers (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Figure 1: Schematic drawings of WEC devices for operating principles and principal locations(Harris Robert E. et al.) The many different types of wave energy converters (WECs) can be classified in to various ways depending on their horizontal size and orientation. If the size is very small compared to the typical wavelength the WEC is called a point absorber. In contrast if the size is comparable to or larger than the typical wavelength, the WEC is known as line absorber, this can also be referred to as terminator or attenuator. A WEC is called terminator or attenuator if it is aligned along or normal to the prevailing direction of the wave crest respectively (John brook, ECOR). The relationship between the three main classifications Principal Location Operating Principle Directional Characteristic: These classifications are shown in Figure 2, presenting the possible operating principles for the location and the directional characteristics. At the shoreline the only feasible operating principles are oscillating water columns and overtopping devices, which are terminators. Figure shows that at near shore and offshore, point absorber or attenuator devices can only be WABs, whilst for terminator devices all three categories of the operating principles are possible. OWCs and OTDs are ‘static’ energy converters of the terminator kind. As a result their mooring has to be stiff, restraining modes of motions but allowing for adjustment towards a parallel wave approach and for tidal ranges. The station keeping requirements for the mooring of wave activated bodies can be either static or dynamic. Figure 2: Possible operating principles for the principal location and directional characteristic 3.1 Attenuators Attenuators are long multi-segment floating structures oriented parallel to the direction of the wave travel. The differing heights of waves along the length of the device causes flexing where the segments connect, and this flexing is connected to hydraulic pumps or other converters (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). 3.2 Point Absorbers Point absorbers have a small horizontal dimension compared with the vertical dimension and utilize the rise and fall of the wave height at a single point for WEC (Harris Robert E. et al.). It is relatively small compared to the wave length and is able to capture energy from a wave front greater than the physical dimension of the absorber (James, 2007). The efficiency of a terminator or attenuator device is linked to their principal axis being, according, parallel or orthogonal to the incoming wave crest. The point absorber does not have a principal wave direction and is able to capture energy from waves arriving from any direction. As a consequence the station keeping for the terminator and attenuator has to allow the unit to weathervane into the predominant wave direction, but this is not necessary for the point absorber (Harris Robert E. et al.). 3.3 Terminators A Terminator has its principal axis parallel to the incident wave crest and terminates the wave. These devices extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. The reflected and transmitted waves determine the efficiency of the device (Harris Robert E. et al.). These devices are typically installed onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). There are mainly two types in Terminator WEC. 3.3.1 Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) The oscillating water column (OWC) is a form of terminator in which water enters through a subsurface opening into a chamber with air trapped above it. The wave action causes the captured water column to move up and down like a piston to force the air through an opening connected to a turbine (U.S. Department of the Interior May 2006). The device consists essentially of a floating or (more usually) bottom-fixed structure, whose upper part forms an air chamber and whose immersed part is open to the action of the sea. The reciprocating flow of air displaced by the inside free surface motion drives an air turbine mounted on the top of the structure. 3.3.1.1 Efficiency of Oscillating Water Column (OWC) The efficiency of oscillating water column (OWC) wave energy devices are particularly affected by flow oscillations basically for two reasons. (1) Because of intrinsically unsteady (reciprocating) flow of air displaced by the oscillating water free surface. (2) Because of increasing the air flow rate, above a limit depending on, and approximately proportional to, the rotational speed of the turbine, is known to give rise to a rapid drop in the aerodynamic efficiency and in the power output of the turbine. A method which has been proposed to partially circumvent this problem consists in controlling the pitch of the turbine rotor blades in order to prevent the instantaneous angle of incidence of the relative flow from exceeding the critical value above which severe stalling occurs at the rotor blades (see Gato and FalcaËÅ"o, 1991). Although considered technically feasible (Salter, 1993) this has never been implemented at full scale owing to mechanical difficulties. Alternately, the flow rate through the turbine can be prevented from becoming excessive by equipping the device with air valves. Two different schemes can be envisaged, in the first one, the valves are mounted between the chamber and the atmosphere in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valves, on or near the roof of the air chamber structure) and are made to open (by active or passive control) in order to prevent the overpressure (or the under pressure) in the chamber to exceed a limit which is defined by the aerodynamic characteristics of the turbine at its instantaneous speed. In the second scheme a valve is mounted in series with the turbine in the duct connecting the chamber and the atmosphere. Excessive flow rate is prevented by partially closing the valve. In both schemes, the air flow through the turbine is controlled at the expense of energy dissipation at the valves. Theoretically the two methods, if properly implemented, are equivalent from the point of view of limiting the flow rate through the turbine. However, the resulting pressure changes in the chamber are different (reduction and increase in pressure oscillations in the first and second cases, respectively). Consequently the hydrodynamic process of energy extraction from the waves is differently modified by valve operation in the two control methods. The main purpose of this work is to analyse theoretically the performance of an OWC wave energy device when valves are used to limit the flow through the turbine. Both schemes are considered and compared: a valve (or a set of valves) mounted in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valve) or a valve mounted in the turbine duct. The hydrodynamic analysis is done in the time domain for regular as well as for irregular waves. The spring-like effect due to the compressibility of the air is taken into account and is discussed in some detail. Realistic characteristics are assumed for the turbine. Numerical results are presented for simple two-dimensional chamber geometry for whose hydrodynamic coefficients analytical expressions are known as functions of wave frequency. 3.3.2 Overtopping Devices (OTD) Overtopping devices have reservoirs that are filled by impinging waves to levels above the average surrounding ocean. The released reservoir water is used to drive hydro turbines or other conversion devices. Overtopping devices have been designed and tested for both onshore and floating offshore applications. It gathers the energy by waves overtopping into a raised reservoir, and extracting this by draining the water through low head turbines. OTD consists of three main elements: Two wave reflectors. Attached to the central platform these act to focus the incoming waves. The main platform. This is a floating reservoir with a doubly curved ramp facing the incoming waves. The waves overtop the ramp which has a variable crest freeboard 1 to 4 m and underneath the platform open chambers operate as an air cushion maintaining the level of the reservoir. Hydro turbines. A set of low head turbines converts the hydraulic head in the reservoir (Tedd James et al., 2005) 3.3.2.1 Overtopping theory The theory for modeling overtopping devices varies greatly from the traditional linear systems approach used by most other WECs. A linear systems approach may be used with overtopping devices. This considers the water oscillating up and down the ramp as the excited body, and the crest of the ramp as a highly non-linear power take off system. However due to the non-linearities it is too computationally demanding to model usefully. Therefore a more physical approach is taken. Figure 4 shows the schematic of flows for the Wave Dragon. Depending on the current wave state (HS, Tp) and the crest freeboard Rc(height of the ramp crest above mean water level, MWL) of the device, water will overtop into the reservoir Qovertopping. The power gathered by the reservoir is a product of this overtopping flow, the crest freeboard and gravity. If the reservoir is over filled when a large volume is deposited in the basin there will be loss from it Qspill. To minimize this, the reservoir level h must be kept below its maximum level hR. The useful hydraulic power converted by the turbines is the product of turbine flow Qturbine, the head across them, water density and gravity (Tedd James et al., 2005). In coastal engineering the average flow Q is converted into non dimensional form by dividing by the breadth of the device b, gravity g and the significant wave height HS: In the case of the floating OTD it has been seen that there is a dependency on the wave period. The dominant physical explanation for this is the effect of energy passing beneath the draft of the structure. Figure 6 Layout of OTD 3.3.2.2 Wave Reflector Wings One of the most distinctive aspects of the Overtopping WEC is the long slender wings mounted to the front corners of the reservoir platform. These are designed to reflect the oncoming waves towards the ramp. A wider section of wave is available to be exploited with only a moderate increase in capital cost. The overtopping volume in a wave is very dependent on the wave height; therefore by providing only a moderate increase in height, much more energy can overtop the ramp. In order to choose the correct lengths, angles, and position of these wings extensive computer modelling is used. Secondary bonuses of the presence of the wave reflector wings include: better weather-vaning performance to face the waves, lower peak mooring forces, and improved horizontal stability of the main platform. As the aft and rear mooring attachment points are separated further, the yaw of the platform is more stable. Therefore the device will not turn away from the predominant wave direction, and will also realign itself faster as when the wave direction changes (Tedd James et al., 2005). Lastly the reflectors wings act as stabilisers to the device. As they float under their own buoyancy they counteract any list of the platform. This is important as the more horizontal the platform is kept the less water is spilt and so the more efficient the device operation. 3.3.2.3 Low Head Turbines and Power Train Turbine operating conditions in a WEC are quite different from the ones in a normal hydro power plant. In the OTD, the turbine head range is typically between 1.0 and 4.0 m, which is on the lower bounds of existing water turbine experience. While there are only slow and relatively small variations of flow and head in a river hydro power plant, the strong stochastic variations of the wave overtopping call for a radically different mode of operation in the OTD. The head, being a function of the significant wave height, is varying in a range as large as 1:4, and the discharge has to be regulated within time intervals as short as ten seconds in order to achieve a good efficiency of the energy exploitation (Tedd James et al., 2005). On an unmanned offshore device, the environmental conditions are much rougher, and routine maintenance work is much more difficult to perform. Special criteria for the choice and construction of water turbines for the WEC have to be followed; it is advisable to aim for constructional simplicity rather than maximum peak efficiency. Figure 6 shows the application ranges of the known turbine types in a graph of head H vs. rotational speed nq. The specific speed nq is a turbine parameter characterizing the relative speed of a turbine, thus giving an indication of the turbines power density. Evidently, all turbine types except the Pelton and the cross flow type are to be found in a relatively narrow band running diagonally across the graph. Transgressing the left or lower border means that the turbine will run too slowly, thus being unnecessarily large and expensive. The right or upper border is defined by technological limits, namely material strength and the danger of cavitations erosion. The Pelton and the cross-flow turbine do not quite follow these rules, as they have a runner which is running in air and is only partially loaded with a free jet of water. Thus, they have a lower specific speed and lower power density. Despite its simplicity and robustness, the cross flow turbine is not very suitable for OTD applications (Tedd James et al., 2005). Figure 7 Head range of the common turbine types, Voith and Ossberger 3.3.2.4 Performance in Storms Survivability is essential, and Overtopping devices are naturally adapted to perform well in storm situations, where the wave will pass over and under the device with no potential end-stop problems. 3.3.2.5 Wave Prediction Performance of almost all wave energy converters can be improved with prediction of the incoming waves. The cost to implement would be low as the control hardware is typically in place, only the measuring system and improved control techniques need to be developed. To explain the concept behind the device a simple example can be used. If a measurement of some wavelengths ahead of the wave energy converter shows large waves passing, then at a given time later this energy will be incident on the device. The control of the device can then be altered quickly to extract this larger energy, e.g. by increasing hydraulic resistance to an oscillator’s motion allowing more energy to be captured within the stroke length, or by draining the reservoir of an overtopping device to allow for a large overtopping volume(Tedd James et al., 2005). The challenges are threefold; to implement a system for measuring the waves approaching the ramp, to accurately transform this into usable input for the control systems, and to construct new control strategies to make the best use of this. The standard approach for performing such deterministic sea-state prediction involves discrete frequency domain techniques. This is computationally intensive, as the two Fourier transforms must be made to convert from the time domain to the frequency domain and return to the time domain. 3.4 Energy Capture and Practical Limits The power captured from waves by the primary mechanical conversion (before secondary conversion to electrical power) can be related to the energy in the incoming waves over a certain width. Theoretical values have been established in some cases. For a heaving axi-symmetric body the maximum capture width is the inverse of the wave number. The capture width is often compared to the front width of the device. This width ratio can be larger than one for a point absorber with small dimensions compared to the wavelength. Viscous effects reduce efficiency. For an OWC, Wang et al. (2002) found that the capture width ratio may reach a value of 3 and above at an optimum wave period. For Pelamis, Retlzler et al. (2001) found a capture width up to 2 in regular waves and around one in random seas (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). A continuous or a semi discrete array of wave energy converters acting as an absorbing wall perpendicular to the wave direction is called a terminator and its capture width equals the width of the device and is not related to the length of the incident waves. As the wave conditions are stochastic, the tuning parameters of the energy converters are compromises between the optimum values at various sea conditions. The capture width must be established for each sea state. Fixed devices are subject to sea level variation according to tidal effects. This is critical for fixed oscillating water columns and fixed overtopping systems whose performances are dependent on the mean sea level. The intake of an OWC must be located at an optimised design level from the mean free surface. The height of an overtopping system is also optimised for sea states occurring at a given mean sea level. Therefore, sites with minimal tide are preferred. From this point of view floating devices are more suitable. The immersion of a floating device can also be tuned with respect to the actual sea state. For instance the Wave Dragon overtopping device is partially floating on air chambers and its draught can be modified (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). The performance of the overtopping device is sensitive to the distribution of the overtopping rate. The more variable the overtopping flow into the reservoir, the larger the capacity of the reservoir and turbines must be to achieve the same performance. 4.0 Mooring Requirements The two major requirements for a WEC mooring are to withstand the environmental and other loadings involved in keeping the device on station, and to be sufficiently cost effective so that the overall economics of the device remain viable. The following list shows the requirements that need to be considered for WEC moorings systems (Harris Robert E. et al.): The primary purpose of the mooring system is to maintain the floating structure on station within specified tolerances under normal operating load and extreme storm load conditions. The excursion of the device must not permit tension loads in the electrical transmission cable(s) and should allow for suitable specified clearance distances between devices in multiple installations. The mooring system must be sufficiently compliant to the environmental loading to reduce the forces acting on anchors, mooring lines and the device itself to a minimum; unless the stiffness of the mooring itself is an active element in the wave energy conversion principle used. All components must have adequate strength, fatigue life and durability for the operational lifetime, and marine growth and corrosion need to be considered. A degree of redundancy is highly desirable for individual devices, and essential for schemes which link several devices together. The system as a whole should be capable of lasting for 30 years or more, with replacement of particular components at no less than 5 years. The mooring must be sufficient to accommodate the tidal range at the installation location. The mooring system should allow the removal of single devices without affecting the mooring of adjacent devices. Removal of mooring lines for inspection and maintenance must be possible. The mooring must be sufficiently stiff to allow berthing for inspection and maintenance purposes. Contact between mooring lines must be avoided. The mooring should not adversely affect the efficiency of the device, and if it is part of an active control system it must also be designed dynamically as part of the overall WEC system. Revenues from WECs, in comparison to the offshore industry, are smaller and their economics more strongly linked to the location, installation costs and down time periods. The mooring system has an important impact on the economics and it is necessary to provide, at low installation cost, a reliable system that has little downtime and long intervals between maintenance. The suitability of design approaches from the offshore industry for WECs are ranked in Appendix I (Harris Robert E. et al.). 5.0 Environmental Considerations Conversion of wave energy to electrical or other usable forms of energy is generally anticipated to have limited environmental impacts. However, as with any emerging technology, the nature and extent of environmental considerations remain uncertain. The impacts that would potentially occur are also very site specific, depending on physical and ecological factors that vary considerably for potential ocean sites. As large-scale prototypes and commercial facilities are developed, these factors can be expected to be more precisely defined (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). The following environmental considerations require monitoring (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Visual appearance and noiseare device-specific, with considerable variability in visible freeboard height and noise generation above and below the water surface. Devices with OWCs and overtopping devices typically have the highest freeboard and are most visible. Offshore devices would require navigation hazard warning devices such as lights, sound signals, radar reflectors, and contrasting day marker painting. However, Coast Guard requirements only require that day markers be visible for 1 nautical mile (1.8 km), and thus offshore device markings would only be seen from shore on exceptionally clear days. The air being drawn in and expelled in OWC devices is likely to be the largest source of above-water noise. Some underwater noise would occur from devices with turbines, hydraulic pumps, and other moving parts. The frequency of the noise may also be a consideration in evaluating noise impacts. Reduction in wave height from wave energy converterscould be a consideration in some settings; however, the impact on wave characteristics would generally only be observed 1 to 2 km away from the WEC device in the direction of the wave travel. Thus there should not be a significant onshore impact if the devices were much more than this distance from the shore. None of the devices currently being developed would harvest a large portion of the wave energy, which would leave a relatively calm surface behind the devices. It is estimated that with current projections, a large wave energy facility with a maximum density of devices would cause the reduction in waves to be on the order of 10 to 15%, and this impact would rapidly dissipate within a few kilometers, but leave a slight lessening of waves in the overall vicinity. Little information is available on the impact on sediment transport or on biological communities from a reduction in wave height offshore. An isolated impact, such as reduced wave height for recreational surfers, could possibly result. Marine habitatcould be impacted positively or negatively depending on the nature of additional submerged surfaces, above-water platforms, and changes in the seafloor. Artificial above-water surfaces could provide habitat for seals and sea lions or nesting areas for birds. Underwater surfaces of WEC devices would provide substrates for various biological systems, which could be a positive or negative complement to existing natural habitats. With some WEC devices, it may be necessary to control the growth of marine organisms on some surfaces. Toxic releasesmay be of concern related to leaks or accidental spills of liquids used in systems with working hydraulic fluids. Any impacts could be minimized through the selection of nontoxic fluids and careful monitoring, with adequate spill response plans and secondary containment design features. Use of biocides to control growth of marine organisms may also be a source of toxic releases. Conflict with other sea space users, such as commercial shipping and fishing and recreational boating, can occur without the careful selection of sites for WEC devices. The impact can potentially be positive for recreational and commercial fisheries if the devices provide for additional biological habitats. Installation and Decommissioning: Disturbances from securing the devices to the ocean floor and installation of cables may have negative impacts on marine habitats. Potential decommissioning impacts are primarily related to disturbing marine habitats that have adapted to the presence of the wave energy structures. 6.0 Discussions A vast number of parameters influence (and interact with) the net power production from any WEC: Overtopping, determined by Free-board (adjustable in Wave Dragons) Actual wave height Physical dimension of the converter (ramps, reflectors etc. Outlet, determined by Size of reservoir Turbine design Turbine on/off strategy Mooring system, free or restricted orientation toward waves Size of the energy converter Wave climate Energy in wave front (kW/m) Distribution of wave heights Availability Theoretical availability; Reliability, maintainability, serviceab

The Privatization of Social Security Essay -- Social Security Privacy

The Privatization of Social Security Many people don’t understand how the Social Security system really works. There are no separate Social Security "accounts" set up for each taxpayer to which he contributes his Social Security "tax" each year. Many people believe these accounts exist, that the money they pay into their accounts grows each year until retirement, and when they retire they get back what they paid in with interest. This is not true. Most people are unaware of the fact that our current Social Security system is a "pay-as-you-go" program, which means that the revenue the federal government raises each tax year for Social Security benefits is paid out that same year to beneficiaries. Many economists believe that our Social Security system is in need of a major overhaul if today's workers are to receive future benefits. Thomas R. Saving, Director of the Private Enterprise Research Center at Texas A&M University says, "What is wrong is that the Social Security system was never set up to be a sound investment-based retirement system." Karl Borden, professor of financial economics at the University of Nebraska recently wrote, "Social Security is an unfunded pay-as-you-go system, fundamentally flawed and analogous in design to illegal pyramid schemes. Government accounting creates the illusion of a trust fund, but, in fact, excess receipts are spent immediately." Robert M. Ball, former commissioner of Social Security said, "Some of the trust fund money should be put into the stock market. I want to do it to get a better return for the Social Security system. Historically, long-term government bonds have had a real return, after inflation, of 2.3 percent a year, compared with 6.3 percent for stocks." Paul W. Boltz, economist for the T. Rowe Price mutual fund said, "When we examine the pending financial crisis of our Social Security system, we find, in effect, the characteristics of a government sponsored Ponzi-type scheme." Michael H. Cosgrove, of the Dallas-based newsletter, The Econoclast says, "People need to take the responsibility of investing their own funds for their retirement. The Social Security system assumes people can't make that decision and government can do it better. The result is a bankrupt Social Security System." These economists believe that by investing ... ...oss would have to be made up either by hiking taxes, increasing borrowing or drastically cutting benefits to current retirees. The present Social Security system faces a long-term shortfall of between 1 percent and 4 percent of total payroll, depending on your projections of future economic growth. But the existing pay-as-you-go system could be rendered solvent by a judicious combination of increasing the retirement age by two or three years and slightly raising taxes. Also there is the question of whether to privatize the whole system, or whether to add a second tier. We might keep the basic system but supplement it with self-directed IRA-like funds. The basic tier would be redistributive and pay-as-you-go. The supplementary layer would be private and based on individual contributions. A further question is who bears the risk when investments go sour. There is no such risk under the current system. The stock market looks like a great retirement vehicle in the 1990’s, but it wasn't so reliable in the 1970s and 1930s. The program was deliberately designed as a social guarantee of retirement income, not a system of government-mandated private savings.

Summary of the Biography of Edgar Allan Poe

Biography of Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Poe was born in Boston on January 19, 1809. That makes him Capricorn, on the cusp of Aquarius. When Poe was 6, he went to school in England for 5 years. He learned Latin and French, as well as math and history. He later returned to school in America and continued his studies. Edgar Allan went to the University of Virginia in 1826. He was 17. Edgar Allan had no money, no job skills, Edgar went to Boston and joined the U. S. Army in 1827. He was 18. He did reasonably well in the Army and attained the rank of sergeant major.In 1831, Edgar Allan Poe went to New York City where he had some of his poetry published. He submitted stories to a number of magazines and they were all rejected. Poe had no friends, no job, and was in financial trouble. In 1835, Edgar finally got a job as an editor of a newspaper because of a contest he won with his story, â€Å"The Manuscript Found in a Bottle†. Edgar missed Mrs. Clemm and Virginia and brought them to Rich mond to live with him. In 1836, Edgar married his cousin, Virginia. He was 27 and she was 13.As the editor for the Southern Literary Messenger, Poe successfully managed the paper and increased its circulation from 500 to 3500 copies. Despite this, Poe left the paper in early 1836, complaining of the poor salary. In 1837, Edgar went to New York. He wrote â€Å"The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym† but he could not find any financial success. He moved to Philadelphia in 1838 where he wrote â€Å"Ligeia† and â€Å"The Haunted Palace†. His first volume of short stories, â€Å"Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque† was published in 1839. Poe received the copyright and 20 copies of the book, but no money. Poe found himself without a regular job once again.He tried to start a magazine called The Stylus and failed. He won a hundred dollars for his story, â€Å"The Gold Bug† and sold a few other stories to magazines but he barely had enough money to support hi s family. Often, Mrs. Clemm had to contribute financially. In 1844, Poe moved back to New York. Even though â€Å"The Gold Bug† had a circulation of around 300,000 copies, he could barely make a living. He and his family moved to a small cottage near what is now East 192nd Street. Virginia's health was fading away and Edgar was deeply distressed by it. Virginia died in 1847, 10 days after Edgar's birthday.After losing his wife, Poe collapsed from stress but gradually returned to health later that year. On September 27, Poe left Richmond for New York. He went to Philadelphia and stayed with a friend named James P. Moss. On September 30, he meant to go to New York but supposedly took the wrong train to Baltimore. On October 3, Poe was found at Gunner's Hall, a public house at 44 East Lombard Street, and was taken to the hospital. He lapsed in and out of consciousness but was never able to explain exactly what happened to him. Edgar Allan Poe died in the hospital on Sunday, Octo ber 7, 1849.Quotes from Edgar Allan Poe â€Å"It will be found, in fact, that the ingenious are always fanciful, and the truly imaginative never otherwise than analytic. † – from â€Å"The Murders in the Rue Morgue† â€Å"It is more than probable that I am not understood; but I fear, indeed, that it is in no manner possible to convey to the mind of the merely general reader, an adequate idea of that nervous intensity of interest with which, in my case, the powers of meditation (not to speak technically) busied and buried themselves, in the contemplation of even the most ordinary objects of the universe. † – from â€Å"Berenice†

The Effects of IT Outsourcing on Retail Companies

The Effects of IT Outsourcing on Retail Companies Introduction Information technology has changed the business processes tremendously. This technological revolution has transformed organizations and businesses such that transactions can be initiated and executed within the shortest span of time. The introduction of the Internet further contributed to the revolution with remote sites able to connect over the Internet and exchanging data, information, and currency.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on The Effects of IT Outsourcing on Retail Companies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The businesses that pioneered information technology quickly included this technology in their business processes. These developed into showcase models in information technology. The cost of implementing these technologies increased over time. As such an opportunity gave itself in which information technology service providers would offer tailored and business-oriented services to willing bu sinesses at a fee. This option was considered against the rising costs of setting up an IT department. It is this process of outsourcing that has taken the information technology age to the next level. Outsourcing has enabled businesses in need of technologically knowledgeable processes but lack the technical and human capacity to outsource such services and processes to technological experts at a stipulated cost (Pinnington and Woolcook 1999; Stakes 1995). Outsourcing has opened up frontiers in IT standardization, especially in the business world where these businesses can acquire IT services from third party organizations and as such benchmark their processes to the global standards. This study is specifically going to address the effects of information technology outsourcing among retail businesses in the United Kingdom. Background and research problem definition IT outsourcing has been around before the turn of the century. Indeed as more businesses discovered the need and advan tages of including IT in their business processing, information technology became the most expensive form of technology then. However, in this a business opportunity arose where information technology astute organizations would lend out their technology by outsourcing to those businesses and organizations that had need then.Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It is during this period that businesses such as the British Steel turned to Gap Gemini to outsource their central management service (CMS) unit. British Steel has a workforce of about 50,000 with a turnover of more than 7000 million UK pounds (Brown and Wilson 2005; Linder, Cole and Jacobson, 2002). This company runs a central management services unit to provide exceptional IT support for the company’s finance, payroll, and human resources. CMS also covers some processes within the company’s ope rational system. The British Steel case study is indicative that IT has brought with it special organizational need to ensure facility management. On acquiring new systems through business re-engineering, organizations often realize that they are not able to optimize these systems and therefore have minimal benefit. This is mainly caused by resistive organizational culture that offers little room for change to take place within the organization. Such organizations or businesses turn to outsource such processes to ensure to ensure the processes are carried out professionally and at exceptional standards because IT has a global scope. Therefore, British Steel just like many retail businesses in the United Kingdom turned to Cap Gemini a world class IT Company that the steel manufacturer outsourced about one third of its processes covered within their CMS. British Steel intention to outsource was to gain competitive advantage by maintaining high quality standards with more tahn 99% for key indicators, establish perpetual improvement programs even through the British Steel business improvement program; ensuring a smooth transition of IT responsibilities with minimal disruption to the existing IT system, and safeguarding the interests of its workforce. Several years down the line, the British Steel management intimate that it is about the right IT that can help a company gain competitive advantage in the global market and to this company, outsourcing was the key. Research Questions The British Steel case is just one among the many cases that has experienced the benefits of, IT outsourcing considered a vital undertaking and has vast influence on the economies of countries over the world (Sullivan and Steven 2003).Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on The Effects of IT Outsourcing on Retail Companies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Retail businesses form an important stratum of the general business eco nomy. Retail businesses must have the capability to support evolutionary business processes as the customer needs continue to change. It is this flexibility that can enable such businesses to remain competitive. However, these technology changes come at a high cost of implementation. Faced with such a dilemma, retail businesses will undoubtedly resort to outsourcing to maintain competitive advantage. This research proposal therefore aims at studying the effects of outsourcing in IT and their effects on retail companies, especially in the UK. In so doing, the research will be guided the following main research questions: What are the factors that lead to IT outsourcing among retail companies? What are the effects of IT outsourcing among retail companies? What is the general trend among retail companies in the UK as concerns IT outsourcing? Upon answering the above research questions, a conclusion could be made on the relationship between IT outsourcing and retail companies (De Vaus 2002). Recommendations will also be made after this study on the emerging retail business trends in the UK poised to benefit from IT outsourcing to establish competitive advantage. Research Objectives Based on the research questions, the research objectives can be derived. As stated earlier, the main aim of this research is to establish what effect IT outsourcing has on retail companies in the UK (Bryman and Bell 2007). This research focuses at clearly identifying the IT outsourcing processes with reference to retail business and how the two are related. This implies that the research objectives will include:- To determine reasons IT outsourcing is gaining attention among retail companies. To determine typical effects of IT outsourcing among retail companies in the UK. To determine the general IT outsourcing trends among retail companies in the UK. Literature review IT outsourcing continues to draw much attention from many scholars, academicians, professionals, and business exper ts. This has resulted in a continuous expanding knowledge base focusing on outsourcing and its effects on business processes. However, a review of most of these articles reveals that even though writers differ in some instances, the fact still remains that IT outsourcing has had a significant impact on retail companies all over the world (Jack 2009). This impact affects countries’ economies in many ways. In the article; How Outsourcing Affects the U.S. Economy, Hasan (2008) agrees that indeed outsourcing has brought with it a mixture of effects.Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Some of the effects according to the articles have been beneficial, especially to retail business. The author notes that the dynamitic advantage that outsourcing brings with it has benefited retail industry because of cheap imports and subsequently stronger exports. It has also saved money for these companies. Gordijn (2002) concurs that the outsourcing process is currently considered as a positive contributor to any country’s economy. Research has shown that service jobs generate less income as compared to manufacturing jobs. In fact, the latter are considered as those responsible for creating the wealth in any nation. On the contrary, service jobs consume this wealth. Research findings further indicate that more businesses are currently depending on IT to gain the needed competitive edge. However, it is also true that information technology implementation, especially for a business critical process has a high price tag. As such, IT outsourcing puts the country’s econ omy on the line (Stern and El-Ansary 1992). The trend is not any different with retail companies that must adhere to the state of economy. The outsourcing practice can apply to nearly all types of business. This process is preferred by most business experts because it is considered cost effective. It has been statistically proven that outsourcing can result into reduced costs by between 50 and 60%. For instance, companies in Europe outsource up to $19 trillion spent on a daily basis on processes like sales and administration. Nevertheless, in Futurist (2011) review of literature, he states, â€Å"despite outsourcing being cost-effective, efficient, productive and strategic, it is also condemned as evil, money-grabbing, destructive, ruthless, exploiting the poor, destroying communities and nations† (Futurist 2011, p. 1). Futurist (2011) further asserts that outsourcing has compromised low-cost nations. This is evident with the increased migration from the high-earning nations to the compromised ones. This has led to labour shortages. China and India are a perfect example in this context (Outsource mag, 2011). These two nations, especially China, are experiencing close to 100% salary inflation, and India has been hit by an acute shortage of corporate leadership as a result of large-scale outsourcing. Some of the typical business processes that qualify to be outsourced to IT- oriented companies are those involving electronic data interchange (EDI). According to Fernie (1999), sending financial information is a vital undertaking for any business. However, the process is considered very sensitive. Retail companies continue to focus on electronic automation of such processes as invoicing, order processing dispatch, and other routine processes. Such processes will definitely require EDI to simplify trading cycles and accelerate transactions. However, based on the sensitive nature of the data and information handled by the EDI systems, the cost of their impleme ntation remains high and beyond the reach of many retail companies in the UK and around the world. According to Pinnington and Woolcook (1999) electronic commerce that fundamentally relies on EDI is quickly becoming standard based. Accordingly companies such as Microgen UK are seeing an opportunity to provide the EDI functions to small and medium enterprises who cannot afford to implement EDI full-scale. With companies such as Microgen UK, these retail companies have an opportunity to outsource their EDI processes and therefore compete effectively on the global market. Generally, there is much literature on the outsourcing process and the effect and benefits to the business or organization. However, little is available in this domain, especially related to the effects of IT outsourcing among retail companies within the United Kingdom (Linder, Cole and Jacobson, 2002). This research focuses on this area of study and intends to draw vital conclusions that can be used by professionals, academicians, and businesspeople. Theoretical framework Theories are usually developed to try to predict certain happenings. These happenings may include events of behaviour. A theoretical framework of the study here will include a structure capable of holding a theory during the research. The study here is about the effects of IT outsourcing among retail companies in the UK. The research problem addresses IT outsourcing among retail companies in the UK. The purpose of this research is to relate IT outsourcing to retail businesses in the UK and highlight the effects of outsourcing on retail businesses. The theoretical framework here will represent a theory that can be used as a basis for conducting the research. This research is likely to build a theory in line with the objective of this research. The researcher will use inductive reasoning to address the research problem the effects of IT outsourcing among retail companies in the UK. The research proposal will focus on all variabl e involved in the relationship between IT outsourcing and retail companies (Halvey and Melby, 2005). Based on the literature review it has been established that the two are interconnected and affect each other. The research proposal therefore aims at determining the link between them. The variables will also be vital in determining statistical relationship between IT outsourcing and the performance of retail companies (Eriksson and Kovalainen 2008). Research methods and sampling techniques to be used Collection, sampling, and analyzing of data should be done methodically and with much keenness (Veal 2005). There are a number of research approaches proposed for this study. In the article; The Research Process, Bouma (2004) states that the researcher during the inductive approach makes specific observations from the collected data and arrives at a new theory by observation and hypotheses (Stakes 1995; Yin 2008). The deductive approach starts by reviewing and gathering theory, collecti ng data, and drawing conclusions. However, these two research approaches are not mutually exclusive; hence a research study may have elements of both (Hamel 2000). This research will also take a quantitative research approach. In this approach the problem t be addressed will require an in depth explanation (Saunders 2009). Additionally, this approach will identify the variables within the problem and establish a correlation between these variables. This research is mainly literature-based where the researcher is intending â€Å"to rely on scholarly evidence to justify the research problem† (Saunders 2009, p. 58). There will be a deliberate attempt to address the inadequate knowledge that exists in this field of research. The research approach will also attempt to quantify the data collected. According to Kumar (2005), the quantitative approach examines and interprets data quantifiable, measurable, and finite. Acquiring quantitative data can be by experimentation, testing, and calculation. The results from this approach are usually displayed in a statistical format (Neuman 2006). Data analysis techniques to be used During this research the data collection strategy to be used will include transcription of the interview responses and field notes. These data will be categorized after open coding that includes an analysis of each interview question described as an item on term approach. Cross analysis as a data analysis technique is used for this research and will ensure that the process is analytically exhausted. The study must also be calibrated for credibility. The data on evaluation should be credible. Credibility involves truthfulness and value of the data. The proposed study will use triangulation where multiple data sources are considered. This enhances the data’s validity. Data validity and reliability Validity measures the extent to which an instrument used in data collection gives a true picture of what has been measured. Validity also refer s to the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences derived from research data. Validity describes the degree to which the findings retrieved from a research are reflective of the concept under study. Structuring the interviews including the items selected for the interview schedule must be closely related to the variables under investigation for the instrument under consideration to qualify (Saunders 2009). The instruments used for this research study will be further evaluated as the study makes use of construct validity. This means that the instruments used will be constructed as suitable as possible to evaluate the theoretical concepts under study. As described earlier the effectiveness of the sampling process will work in conjunction with a sampling technique like snowball sampling at some point. The instruments used here will be constructed by the researcher with reference to the research objectives and under the supervision of a number of experts. Expected outcomes and research contributions The research will proceed on using the quantitative approach in which case the researcher will gather data using data collection instruments such as questionnaires and interviews. The researcher will also carry out document inspections and observations to identify data accurately that is pertinent to the study. The resulting data will be indicative of the fact that IT outsourcing has had various effects on retail companies in the UK. Ultimately, the outcome of this research is will determine that IT outsourcing is increasingly becoming a necessity for all retail business organizations that intend to harness the present technological advancement to their advantage. As such, target respondents will include retail business owners, scholars, government officials, and consumers. Based on the research questions practical and accountable the results are likely to be authoritative and can be used to develop a hypothesis and assist in decision making (Fink 2003). The hypothesi s of the research is based on factual literature views from previous researches. Similarly, the literature review will help give facts about the problem as it appears in different contexts and the various measures put in place and basing on the outcomes from these measures, the researcher will make recommendations (Collis and Hussy, 2009). Ethical issues and research limitations Most research studies have limitations and in this case, the following are the limitations and ethical issues expected in this research: The research will â€Å"quote some facts from secondary sources† (Saunders 2009, p. 256). There are high chances that the gathered information may be biased or outdated. Some vital information to help answer the researcher’s questions might not be made available because of limited research on the topic. Similarly, the study will heavily rely on the information collected from respondents. Therefore, selfish or biased response may affect the results of the whole project rendering it inaccurate. Due to financial constraint coupled with limited time, all effects of IT outsourcing on retail companies might not be adequately brought to light. The complexity of the whole process of theoretical study brings with it many processes that can lead to some aspects of the topics being forgotten. However, I will address this by being very careful to ensure that every aspect in the research questions and aims are adequately addressed (Neelankavil 2007). The limitation of using a descriptive survey research method is that a large descriptive survey may give superficial results. Alternatively, a small-scale descriptive survey with an emphasis on â€Å"qualitative† or â€Å"rich† detail has the limitation as poor generalization. Such small surveys are difficult to know how far the results can be applied elsewhere. The research may also suffer time constraints due to delayed approval by targeted study sample population, especially organization s. Project plan The research proposal includes a number of key activities. It is important that each of these activities is carried out comprehensively. From the methodology and research design, the project can follow the plan highlighted in the table below. Key activities for the project plan Setting up of the research questions and objectives (this includes deciding on the hypotheses of the expected results). Appropriately prepare the research instruments. This includes setting up the required mechanisms to facilitate research proposal such as recording materials and so forth. Paying a pre-visit to sights of the research. This will help in estimating various variables of the proposal like the expected budget as well as time scheduling. Reviewing the study objectives and questions based on the pre-visit findings. Carrying out the study and collecting data through the various methodologies highlighted. The collected data should be sampled and grouped for analysis and te sting the hypotheses to answer the research questions. Making conclusions and recommendations based on the research findings with reference to the literature reviews. Recording and present the research results. Reference List Bouma, G.D., 2004. The Research Process. 5th ed. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Brown, D. and Wilson, S., 2005. The black book of outsourcing: How to manage the changes, challenges, and opportunities. New York: Wiley. Bryman, A. and Bell, E., 2007. Business Research Methods. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Collis, J. and Hussy, R., 2009. Business Research: A practical Guide for Undergraduate Postgraduate Students. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. De Vaus, D., 2002. Surveys in Social Research. 5th ed. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen and Unwin. Eriksson, P. and Kovalainen, A., 2008. Qualitative Methods in Business Research. Los Angeles: Sage. Fernie, J. 1999. Outsourcing distribution in UK retailing. Journal for Business Logist ics, 21(2), pp. 83–95. Fink, A., 2003. The Survey Kit. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication. Futurist, K., 2011. The Future of Outsourcing Impact on Jobs. Journal on High Growth Economy, Web. Gordijn, J., 2002. Value-based Requirements Engineering Exploring Innovative e- Commerce Ideas. Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit. Hamel, G., 2000. Leading the revolution. Oxford: UK Oxford University Press. Hasan, A., 2008. How Outsourcing Affects the U.S. Economy! Directory Journal,  Web. Halvey, J and Melby, M., 2005. IT Outsourcing transactions: Process, strategies,  and contracts. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley. Jack, W., 2009. The Almanac of American Employers: Market Research. New York: New York Publishers. Kumar, R., 2005. Research Methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners. 2nd ed. London: SAGE. Linder, J., Cole, M, and Jacobson, A., 2002. Business transformation through outsourcing. Strategy Leadership, 30(4), pp. 23-28. Neelankavil, J.P., 2007. International Business R esearch. New York: M.E.Sharpe. Neuman, W.L., 2006. Social Research Methods - Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. 6th ed. Boston: Pearson A B. Outsource mag, 2011. Separating retail and investment banking: the impact on outsourcing arrangements. Finance and accounting Journal, Web. Pinnington, A, and Woolcook, P., 1999. How far is IS/IT outsourcing enabling new organizational structure and competences? International Journal of Information  Management, 15(5), pp. 353-365. Saunders , M., 2009. Research methods for business students. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. Stakes, R., 1995. The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Inc. Stern, L. and El-Ansary, A., 1992. Marketing Channels. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. Sullivan, A. and Steven, M., 2003. Economics: Principles in action. New York: Pearson Prentice Hall. Veal, A.J., 2005. Business Research Methods: A Managerial Approach. 2nd ed. Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson Addison Wesley. Yin, R., 2008. Case stud y research: Design and methods (Applied social research methods). 4th ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage Inc.